PART V.
Reading edition
ON THE COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS.
SECTION I.
THE MONEY VALUE OF FOOD SUBSTANCES.
The flesh-forming principles of food are, as I have already stated, almost identical with the principal nitrogenous constituents of animals. Unlike the non-plastic substances, they are convertible into each other with little, if any, loss either of matter or of force. Not many years since it was the fashion to estimate the nutritive value of a food-substance by its proportion of nitrogen; but this method—not yet quite abandoned—was based on erroneous views, and yielded results very far from the truth. No doubt all the more concentrated and valuable kinds of food are rich in nitrogenous principles; but there are other varieties, the nutritive value of which is very low, and yet their proportion of nitrogen is very high. This point requires explanation. Both the plastic and the non-plastic materials of food exist in two distinct states—in one of which they are easily digestible, and in the other either altogether unassimilable or so nearly so as to be almost useless. Thus, for example, the cellular tissue of plants, when newly formed, is to a great extent digestible, whilst the old woody fibre is nearly, if not quite, incapable of assimilation. Gelatine, which in raw bones is easily digested in the stomachs of the carnivora, loses a large proportion of its nutritive value on being subjected to the action of steam. Again, a portion of the nitrogen of young succulent plants is in a form not sufficiently organic to admit of its being assimilated to the animal body. But, independently of these strong objections to the method of estimating the nutritive value of food by its per-centage of flesh-formers, there are many other reasons which as clearly prove the fallacy of this rule. If we were, for instance, to estimate the value of albumen according to the tables of food equivalents which were constructed some years ago by Boussingault and other chemists, we would find one pound weight of it to be equivalent to four pounds weight of oil-cake, or to twelve pounds weight of hay; yet, it is a fact that a horse would speedily die if confined to a purely albuminous diet, whereas hay is capable of supporting the animal's life for an indefinite period.
It is clear, then, from what I have stated, that neither the amount of flesh-formers, nor of fat-formers, contained in a given quantity of a substance is a measure of its nutritive value; nevertheless it would be incorrect to infer from this that the numerous analyses of feeding substances which have been made are valueless. On the contrary, I am disposed to believe that the composition of these substances, when correctly stated by the chemist, enables the physiologist to determine pretty accurately their relative alimentary value. Theory is certainly against the assumption that food is valuable in proportion to its content of nitrogen; nor has practice less strongly disproved its truth. An illustration drawn from the nutrition of plants will make this matter more apparent. Every intelligent agriculturist knows that guano contains nitrogen and phosphoric acid; both substances are indispensable to the development of plants, and therefore it would be incorrect to estimate the manurial value of the guano in proportion to the quantity of nitrogen it was capable of yielding. If the value of manures were determined only by their per-centage of nitrogen—a mode by which certain chemists still estimate the nutritive value of food—then woollen rags would be worth more than bones, and bones would be more valuable than superphosphate of lime. The truth is, that the analysis of feeding stuffs and manures is sometimes of little value if the condition in which the constituents of these substances exist be undetermined. For example, the analysis of one manure may show it to contain 40 per cent. of phosphate of lime, and three per cent. of ammonia, whilst, according to analysis, another fertiliser may include 20 per cent. of phosphate of lime, and two per cent. of ammonia. Viewed by this light solely, the first manure would be considered the more valuable of the two, whereas it might, in reality, be very much inferior. If the phosphate of lime in the manure, containing 40 per cent. of that body, were derived from coprolites or apatite, and its ammonia from horns, the former would be worth little or nothing, and the latter, by reason of its exceedingly slow evolution from the horns, would possess a very low value. If, on the contrary, the phosphate of lime, in the manure comparatively poor in phosphate, were a constituent of bones, and its ammonia ready formed (say as sulphate of ammonia), then, its value, both commercial and manurial, would be far greater than the other.
In estimating the money value of an article of food, we should omit such considerations as the relative adjustment of its flesh-formers and fat-formers, and its suitability to particular kinds of animals, as well as to animals in a certain stage of development. The manure supplied to plants contains several elements indispensable to vegetable nutrition; and, although the agriculturist most commonly purchases all these elements combined in the one article, still he frequently buys each ingredient separately. Ammonia is one of these principles, and, whether it be bought per se, or as a constituent of a compound manure, the price it commands is invariable. This principle should prevail in the purchase of food: each constituent of which should have a certain value placed upon it; and the sums of all the values of the constituents would then be the value of the article of food taken as a whole. There are, no doubt, practical difficulties in the way which prevent this method of valuation from giving more than approximatively correct results; but are there not precisely similar difficulties in the way of the correct estimation of the value of a manure according to its analysis? There are several constituents of food, the money value of which is easily determinable: these are sugar, starch, and fat. No matter what substance they are found in, the nutritive value of each varies only within very narrow limits. The value of cellulose and woody fibre is not so easily ascertained, as it varies with the age and nature of the vegetable structure in which these principles occur. There is little doubt but that the cellulose and fibre of young grass, clover, and other succulent plants, are, for the most part, digestible; and we should not be far astray if we were to assume that four pounds weight of soft fibre and cellulose are equivalent to three pounds weight of starch. As to old hard fibre, we are not in a position to say whether or not it possesses any nutrimental value worth taking into account. The estimation of the value of the flesh-forming materials is far more difficult than that of sugar, starch, pectine compounds, and fat. The nitrogenous constituents of food must be in a highly elaborated state before they are capable of being assimilated. In seeds—in which vegetable substances attain their highest degree of development—they probably exist in the most digestible form, whilst much of the nitrogen found in the stems and leaves of succulent plants, is either in a purely mineral state, or in so low a degree of elaboration as to be unavailable for the purpose of nutrition. But even plastic materials, in a high degree of organisation, present many points of difference, which greatly affect their relative alimental value; for example, many of them are naturally associated with substances possessing a disagreeable flavor: and as their separation from these substances is often practically impossible, the animal that consumes both will not assimilate the plastic matters so well as if they were endowed with a pleasant flavor. In seeds and other perfectly matured vegetable structures, the flesh-formers may exist in different degrees of availability. The nitrogen of the testa, or covering of the seeds, will hardly be so assimilable as that which exists in their cotyledons. The solubility of the flesh-formers—provided they be highly elaborated—is a very good criterion of their nutritive power. In linseed the muscle-forming substances are more soluble than in linseed-cake—the heat which is generally employed in the extraction of oil from linseed rendering the plastic materials of the resultant cake less soluble, and diminishing thereby their digestibility, as practice has proved.
From the considerations which I have now entered into, it is obvious that the chemical analysis of food substances as generally performed, though of great utility, does not afford strictly accurate information as to their commercial value, and still less reliable in relation to their nutritive power. At the same time, they as clearly establish the feasibility of analyses being made whereby the money value of feeding-stuffs may be estimated with tolerable exactitude. Let the chemist determine the presence and relative amounts of the ingredients of food-substances, and—if it be possible so to do with a degree of exactness that would render the results useful—place on each a money value. This done, let the physiologist and the feeder combine the food in such proportions as they may find best adapted to the nature, age, and condition of the animal to be fed.
It is to be regretted that the market price of feeding stuffs is not, in consequence of our defective knowledge, strictly determined by their nutritive value, for if such were the case, the feeder would merely have to adapt each to the nature and condition of his stock. Even amongst practical men there prevails, unfortunately, great diversity of opinion as to the relative nutritive value of the greater number of food substances; and I am quite certain that many of these command higher prices than others which in no respect are inferior. It would lead me too far from my immediate subject were I to enter minutely into the consideration of such questions as—whether an acre of grass yields more or less nutriment than an acre of turnips? I shall merely describe the composition and properties of grass and of turnips, and of the various other important food substances, and compare their nutritive power, so far as comparisons are admissible; but I shall say but little on the subject of the various economic and other conditions which affect the production of forage plants. When I shall have described the chemical nature and physical condition of the various articles of food, and the results of actual feeding experiments made with them, the feeder will then be in a position to determine which are the most economical to produce or to purchase.
SECTION II.
PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLES.
The saccharine, or amylaceous substances constitute the most abundant of the proximate constituents of plants. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. I shall briefly describe the more important members of this group of substances, namely, starch, sugar, inulin, gum, pectin, and cellulose.
Starch, or fecula, occurs largely in dicotyledonous seeds, peas, &c., and still more abundantly in certain monocotyledonous seeds, such as wheat and barley. It constitutes the great bulk of many tubers and roots—for example, the potato and tapioca. It consists of flattened ovate granules, which vary in size according to the plant. In the beetroot they are 1⁄3500 of an inch in diameter, whilst in tous les mois they are nearly 1⁄200 of an inch in diameter. Most of the starch granules are marked by a series of concentric rings. Starch is heavier than water, and is insoluble in that fluid when cold; neither is it dissolved by alcohol or ether. When heated in water having a temperature of at least 140° Fahrenheit, it increases greatly in volume, and acquires a gelatinous consistence. When the water is allowed to cool, a portion of the starch becomes insoluble, whilst another portion remains in solution; the latter form of starch is sometimes termed amidin, from the French word for starch, amidon. When dry starch is heated to 400° Fahr., it is converted, without any change in its composition, into a soluble gum-like substance, termed dextrin, or British gum. On being boiled in diluted sulphuric acid it is converted into a kind of sugar; and the same effect is produced by fermentation—for example, in the germination of seeds. Fresh rice contains 82, wheat 60, and potatoes 20 per cent. of starch. This substance constitutes a nutritious and easily digestible food, but alone cannot support life. Arrowroot is only a pure form of starch.
Sugar occurs less abundantly in plants than starch. There are several varieties of this substance, of which the kinds termed cane sugar (sucrose) and grape sugar (glucose), are only of importance to agriculturists. The former enters largely into the composition of the sugar-cane, the beetroot, the sugar-maple, the sorgho grass, pumpkins, carrots, and a great variety of other plants. Grape sugar is found in fruits, especially when dried—raisins and figs—in malted corn, and in honey. In the sugar-cane there is 18 per cent., and in the beetroot 10 per cent. of sugar.
Cane sugar, when pure, consists of minute transparent crystals. It is 16⁄10 heavier than water, and is soluble in one-third of its weight of that fluid. By long-continued boiling in water it is changed into uncrystallizable sugar, or treacle, by which its flavor is altered, but its sweetening power increased.
Grape sugar crystallizes in very small cubes, of inferior color as compared with cane sugar crystals. It dissolves in its own weight of water, being three times less soluble than sucrose. In sweetening power one part of cane sugar is equal to 2½ parts of grape sugar; but there is probably little if any difference, between the nutritive power of the two substances.
Inulin is a substance somewhat resembling starch. It does not occur in large quantities. It is met with in the roots of the dandelion, chicory, and many other plants.
Gum is an abundant constituent of plants. The kind termed gum arabic, so largely employed in the arts, is a very pure variety of this substance. Common gums are said to be essentially composed of a very weak acid—gummic, or arabic acid—united with lime and potash. The solution of gum is very slightly acid, and has a mucilaginous, ropy consistence: it is almost tasteless. Mucilage, or bassorin, is simply a modified form of gum, which, though insoluble in water, forms a gelatinous mixture with that fluid. It exudes from certain trees—the cherry for example—and exists largely in linseed and other seeds. Gums are nutritious foods, but it is probable that they are not equal in alimental power to equal weights of starch or sugar.
Vegetable jelly, or pectin, is almost universally diffused throughout the vegetable kingdom. It is owing to its presence that the juices of many fruits and roots possess the property of gelatinizing. It is soluble in water, but prolonged boiling destroys its viscous property. Pectose is a modification of pectin; it is insoluble in water. According to Fremy, the hardness of green fruits is due to the presence of pectose; which is also found in the cellular tissue of turnips, carrots, and various other roots.
Cellulose is a fibrous or cellular tissue, allied in composition to starch. It is the most abundant constituent of plants, and forms the very ground-work of the vegetable mechanism. Linen, cotton, and the pith of the elder and other trees are nearly pure forms of cellulose. Ligneous, or woody tissue (lignin) is indurated cellulose, hardened by age. It is almost identical in composition with cellulose. Pure cellulose is white, colorless, tasteless, insoluble in water, oil, alcohol, or ether. It is heavier than water. Sulphuric acid is capable of converting it into grape, or starch sugar. In its fresh and succulent state cellulose is digestible and nutritious; but in the form of ligneous tissue it opposes a very great resistance to the action of the digestive fluids. Digestible cellulose is probably equal in nutritive power to starch.
Oils and fats occur abundantly in vegetables, more particularly in their seeds. In the seeds of many cruciferous plants the proportion of fat and oil exceeds 35 per cent. The oils and fats termed fixed are those which possess the greatest interest to agriculturists; the volatile oils being those which confer on certain plants their fragrant odour. There are a great variety of vegetable oils, but the proximate constituents of most of them are chiefly stearin, margarin, olein, and palmitin.
Stearin is a white crystalline substance, sparingly soluble in alcohol and ether, but insoluble in water. There are two or three modifications of this substance, but they do not essentially differ from each other. The melting point varies from 130° to 160° Fahr. Stearin is the most abundant of the fats.
Margarin presents the appearance of pearly scales. It is the solid fat present in olive oil, and it is also met with in a great variety of fats and oils. It melts at 116° Fahr.
Olein is the fluid constituent of oils and fatty substances. It resists an extreme degree of cold, without solidifying. There are several modifications of this body—the olein of olive oil being somewhat different from that of castor oil; the olein of linseed is sometimes termed linolien.
Palmitin.—This fat occurs in many plants, but as it makes up the great bulk of palm oil, it has been termed palmitin. It is white, and may be obtained in feathery-like masses. Its melting point varies from 114° to 145°, there being, according to Duffy, three modifications of this substance.
The fats and oils are lighter than water. They contain far more carbon and hydrogen, and less oxygen, than are found in the sugars and starches. They all consist of acids (stearic, palmitic, &c.) united with glycerine. On being boiled with potash or soda, the latter take the place of the glycerine, which is set free, and a soap is produced. The fatty acids strongly resemble the fats. In nutritive power, one part of fat is equal to 2½ parts of starch or sugar.
The Albuminous substances contain, in addition to the elements found in starch, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. Albumen, fibrin, and legumin constitute the three important members of the "Nitrogenous" constituents of plants.
Albumen is an uncrystallizable substance. It is soluble in water, unless when heated to 140 deg. Fahr., at which temperature it coagulates, i.e., becomes solid and insoluble. The gluten of wheat is composed chiefly of albumen, and of bodies closely allied to that substance.
Fibrin, when dried, is a hard, horny, yellow, solid body. It contains a little more oxygen than is found in albumen. This substance is best known as a constituent of animals, and it does not appear to be abundant in plants. The portion of the gluten of wheat-flour, which is insoluble in boiling alcohol, is considered by Liebig and Dumas to be coagulated fibrin.
In the seeds of leguminous and a few other kinds of plants large quantities of a substance termed legumin are found. It resembles the casein, or cheesy ingredient of milk; indeed, some chemists consider it to be identical in composition with that substance. When pure, it is pearly white, insoluble in boiling water, but soluble in cold water and in vinegar. The saline matters found in plants are always associated with the albuminous bodies; the latter, therefore, form the bones as well as the muscles of animals.
A great many substances are found in plants, such as wax, mannite, "extractive matter," citric, malic, and other acids, of the nutritive value of which very little is known. The substances described in this section constitute, however, at least 95 per cent. of the weight of the vegetable matters used as food by live stock.
SECTION III.
GREEN FOOD.
The Grasses.—More than one-half the area of Great Britain and Ireland is under pasture; the grasses, therefore, constitute the most important and abundant food used by live stock. The composition of the natural and artificial grasses is greatly influenced by the nature of the soil on which they are grown, and by the climatic conditions under which they are developed. Many of them are almost worthless, whilst others possess a high nutritive value. Amongst the most useful natural grasses may be enumerated Italian rye-grass, Meadow barley, Annual Meadow-grass, Crested dogstail-grass, Cocksfoot-grass, Timothy or Meadow catstail-grass, and Sweet vernal-grass. Amongst grasses of medium quality I may mention common Oatlike-grass, Meadow foxtail grass, Smooth and rough stalked Meadow-grass, and Waterwhorl-grass. There are very many grasses which are almost completely innutritious, and which ought, under no circumstances, to be tolerated, although too often they make up the great bulk of the herbage of badly-managed meadows and pastures. Such grasses are, the Meadow soft-grass, Creeping soft-grass, False brome-grass, and Upright brome-grass. The rough-stalked Meadow-grass, though spoken favorably of by some farmers, is hardly worthy of cultivation, and the same may be said of many of the grasses which have a place in our meadows and pastures. (See "Analyses of Natural Grasses in a Fresh State, by Dr. Voelcker," on next page.)
The Schræder brome is a perennial lately introduced into France. It is described as an exceedingly valuable forage crop, and one which is admirably adapted for the feeding of dairy cows. It would be desirable to give it a trial in these countries. The composition (which is very peculiar) of this plant is stated to be as follows, when dry:—
ANALYSIS OF SCHRÆDER BROME HAY.
Water 16·281
Nitrogenous matters 23·443
Fat 3·338
Starch gum, &c. 22·549
Cellulose (fibre) 19·843
Ashes 14·546
————
Total 100·000
ANALYSES OF NATURAL GRASSES IN A FRESH STATE, BY DR. VOELCKER.
Water. Albuminous or Flesh-forming Principles. Fatty Matters. Respiratory Principles: Starch, Gum, Sugar. Woody Fibre. Mineral Matter or Ash. Date of Collection.
Anthoxanthum odoratum—Sweet-scented vernal grass 80·35 2·00 ·67 8·54 7·15 1·24May 25
Alopecurus pratensis—Meadow foxtail grass 80·20 2·44 ·52 8·59 6·70 1·55June 1
Arrhenatherum avenaceum—Common oat-like grass 72·65 3·54 ·87 11·21 9·37 2·36July 17
Avena flavescens—Yellow oat-like grass 60·40 2·96 1·04 18·66 14·22 2·72June 29
Avena pubescens—Downy oat-grass 61·50 3·07 ·92 19·16 13·34 2·01July 11
Briza media— Common quaking grass 51·85 2·93 1·45 22·60 17·00 4·17June 29
Bromus erectus—Upright brome grass 59·57 3·78 1·35 33·192·11 " 23
Bromus mollis—Soft brome grass 76·62 4·05 ·47 9·04 8·46 1·36 May 8
Cynosurus cristatus—Crested dogstail grass 62·73 4·13 1·32 19·64 9·80 2·38June 21
Dactylus glomerata—Cocksfoot grass 70·00 4·06 ·94 13·30 10·11 1·54 " 13
Ditto, seeds ripe 52·57 10·93 ·74 12·61 20·54 2·61July 19
Festuca duriuscula—Hard fescue grass 69·33 3·70 1·02 12·46 11·83 1·66June 13
Holcus lanatus—Soft meadow grass 69·70 3·49 1·02 11·92 11·94 1·93 " 29
Hordeum pratense—Meadow barley 58·85 4·59 ·94 20·05 13·03 2·54July 11
Lolium perenne—Darnel grass 71·43 3·37 ·91 12·08 10·06 2·15June 8
Lolium italicum—Italian rye-grass 75·61 2·45 ·80 14·11 4·82 2·21 " 13
Phleum pratense—Meadow catstail grass 57·21 4·86 1·50 22·85 11·32 2·26
Poa annua—Annual meadow grass 79·14 2·47 ·71 10·79 6·30 ·59 May 28
Poa pratensis—Smooth-stalked meadow grass 67·14 3·41 ·86 14·15 12·49 1·95June 11
Poa trivialis—Rough-stalked ditto 73·60 2·58 ·97 10·54 10·11 2·20 " 18
Grass from water meadow 87·58 3·22 ·81 3·98 3·13 1·28Apr. 30
Ditto, second crop 74·53 2·78 ·52 11·17 8·76 2·24June 26
Annual rye-grass 69·00 2·96 ·69 12·89 12·47 1·99 " 8
Most of the grasses here mentioned were analysed when in flower.
Tussac Grass (Dactylis cæspitus) is recommended as an excellent plant to grow on very poor, wet, or mossy soils.25 It is an evergreen grass, somewhat resembling coltsfoot. It is relished by cattle.
ANALYSIS OF TUSSAC GRASS BY JOHNSTONE.
Lower part. Upper part.
Water 86·09 75·17
Flesh-formers 2·47 4·79
Sugar, gum, &c. 4·62 6·81
Woody fibre (with a little albumen) 5·68 11·86
Ash 1·14 1·37
———— ————
Total 100·00 100·00
The "artificial grasses" embrace the clovers, vetches, lucerne, and a few other plants, some of which are seldom cultivated.
ANALYSES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLOVER, BY DR. ANDERSON.
Per-centage in the Fresh Clover. Per-centage in Dry Clover.
Water. Dry Substances. Ash. Nitrogenised Substances. Ash. Nitrogenised Matters.
Red clover—Trifolium pratense:
1. From English seed 85·30 14·70 1·30 2·31 8·90 15·87
2. From German seed (from the Rhine) 81·68 18·32 1·49 2·81 8·15 15·50
3. From French seed 83·51 16·49 1·95 2·25 11·82 13·56
4. From American seed 79·98 21·02 1·58 2·87 8·05 ...
5. From Dutch seed ... ... ... ... 8·82 12·43
Cowgrass—Trifolium medium:26
Variety, Duke of Norfolk 77·39 22·61 2·73 2·25 12·09 10·19
Variety, common 81·76 18·24 1·92 3·19 10·53 14·37
Crimson clover—Trifolium incarnatum:
From French seed 82·56 17·44 1·88 3·25 10·81 18·56
Yellow clover—Medicago lupulina:
From English seed 77·38 22·62 2·02 3·50 8·95 15·44
From French seed 78·60 21·40 1·75 2·94 8·18 13·69
Clover is very rich in flesh-forming and heat-producing substances. There are several varieties of this plant, of which the Alsike Clover appears to be the most valuable, as it contains a high proportion of organic matter and gives the largest acreable produce. The nature of the soil influences, to a great extent, the composition of this plant: this no doubt accounts for the somewhat discrepant result of the analyses of it made by Way, Voelcker, and Anderson.
The composition of the Vetch, Sainfoin, and Lucerne, resembles very closely that of the Clover: indeed, it appears to me that all these leguminous plants are nearly equally valuable as green forage, but that the best adapted for hay is the Clover. In the following table the composition of these plants is shown:—
ANALYSES OF CLOVER, BY DR. VOELCKER.
I. Red Clover. II. White Clover. III. Yellow Clover. IV. Alsike Clover. V. Bokhara Clover.
Water 80·64 83·65 77·57 76·67 81·30
Soluble in Water—
a. Organic substances 6·35 4·98 8·26 4·91 6·80
b. Inorganic substances 1·55 1·13 1·40 1·33 1·54
Insoluble in water—
a. Impure vegetable fibre 11·04 9·80 12·17 16·36 10·01
b. Inorganic matters (ash) 0·42 0·44 0·60 0·73 0·35
100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00
ANALYSES OF LUCERNE, SAINFOIN, AND VETCH.
I. Lucerne. II. Sainfoin. III. Vetch.
Water 73·41 77·32 82·16
Soluble in Water
a. Organic substances 9·43 8·00 6·07
b. Inorganic substances 2·33 1·20 1·07
Insoluble in water
a. Impure vegetable fibre 14·08 12·95 10·23
b. Inorganic matters (ash) 0·75 0·53 0·47
100·00 100·00 100·00
The artificial grasses are, on the whole, more nutritious than the natural grasses; but I should explain that the analyses of the natural grasses which I have quoted refer to those plants in what may be almost termed their wild state: under the influence of good cultivation—when irrigated or top-dressed with abundance of appropriate manure—their analyses would indicate a higher nutritive value. The grasses, and more especially the so-called artificial grasses, are more nutritious and digestible when young. In old clover the proportion of insoluble woody fibre is often so considerable as to greatly detract from the alimental value of the plant.
The Lentils, the Birdsfoot, the Trefoil, and the Melilot are leguminous plants which occasionally are found as constituents of forage crops. Lentils are extensively cultivated on the Continent, and are the only kind of these plants the chemistry of which has been at all studied. The straw contains 7 per cent. of flesh-formers.
The Yellow Lupine is cultivated rather extensively in Germany, France, and Belgium, partly for feeding purposes, partly to furnish a green manure. Its seeds constitute a nutritious article of food for man, and its stems and leaves are given to cattle. An attempt was made a few years ago to introduce its cultivation, as a field crop, into England, and very satisfactory results attended the first trials made with it. Mr. Kimber, who has cultivated this crop, states that it is likely to prove valuable on light sandy soils, where the ordinary green fodder crops are not easily cultivated. The produce per acre obtained in Mr. Kimber's trial was about nineteen tons. Cattle and sheep relish the Yellow Lupine, but according to Mr. Kimber, pigs reject it. Professor Voelcker examined this plant, and found that it resembled in composition the ordinary artificial grasses, except in one respect, namely, a remarkable deficiency in sugar. Altogether, it is not so rich in nutriment as any of the commonly cultivated leguminous plants; but as it can be cultivated on a very poor soil, and gives a good return, it is probable that the Yellow Lupine will yet become a common crop in Britain. The following table exhibits the results of Dr. Voelcker's analysis.
COMPOSITION OF YELLOW LUPINES (CUT DOWN IN A GREEN STATE).
In natural state.Dried at 212°F.
Water 89·20
Oil ·37 3·42
* Soluble albuminous compounds 1·37 12·68
Soluble mineral (saline) substances ·61 5·64
† Insoluble albuminous compounds 1·01 9·35
Sugar, gum, bitter extractive matter, and digestible fibre 3·96 36·68
Indigestible woody fibre (cellulose) 3·29 30·48
Insoluble mineral matters ·19 1·75
——— ———
100·00 100·00
* Containing nitrogen ·22 2·03
† Containing nitrogen ·16 1·48
Rib grass plantain (Plantago lanceolata) is one of those plants, the value of which for forage purposes is questionable. Many persons believe it to be a useful food. Its composition, which looks favorable, is as follows:—
Water 84·78
Albuminous matters 2·18
Fatty matters 0·56
Starch, gum, &c. 6·08
Woody fibre 5·10
Mineral matter 1·30
The grasses, natural and artificial, are occasionally affected by a formidable and well-known fungus, the ergot. Italian rye-grass is the most liable to the ravages of this pest, and there are on record several cases in which ergotted rye-grass proved fatal to the animal fed upon it. Clover and the various leguminous plants appear more liable to the ergot disease than the natural grasses (except rye-grass), but I have on several occasions noticed this fungus on the spikelets of Hordeum pratense, Festuca pratense, and Bromus erectus. It has also been noticed that rye-grass rapidly developed under the influence of liquid manure is so rank that young animals fed upon it are poisonously affected. Alderman Mechi states that in July, 1864, ten out of his thirty Shorthorn calves died in consequence of eating the heads of Italian rye-grass, and that the survivors' health was seriously injured. He was also unfortunate with his lambs, which, during the same month, were folded on Italian rye-grass. "Four days ago," writes the Alderman, "it was sewaged, having been prior to the former growth also guanoed. In four days it had grown from four to five inches, was of an intense green, and pronounced to be, by sharp practical men, just the food for lambs. Well, we put on our lambs, taking care to do so in the evenings after they had been well fed. My bailiff accompanied them, and, within five minutes, turning accidentally round, he saw two of the lambs with their heads in the air staggering (stomach staggers it is called) and frothing at the mouth. He immediately saw the mischief, removed the lambs, and on their way back to a bare fold some of them vomited the Italian rye-grass that they had just eaten, accompanied by frothy slime; others brought it up during the night. Some of them trembled, gaped, and showed all the same symptoms that my calves had done, such as rapid pulse, &c. Two or three of them are rather queer to-day. I hope that Professor Simmonds or some capable person will tell us how this is? If we mow this grass, bring it home, and cut it into chaff, all which tends to heat or dry it, it becomes wholesome food. The same remarks apply in degree to very succulent tares. If the Italian grass is brought home and given long and quite fresh to the calves, it will kill them. It does not appear to injure old ewes as it does lambs or shearlings. The dry weather has something to do with it. In wet weather the evil is much diminished, or disappears."
It is probable that the juice of this poisonous herbage was extremely rich in matters only semi-organised, and perhaps abounded in the crude substances from which the vegetable tissues are elaborated. Such rank grass as this was should not be used until it has attained to a tolerably developed state: in mature plants the juices contain more highly organised matters than are found in young vegetables.
The Sorghuo, or Holcus Saccharatus.—This plant, introduced to the notice of the British farmer but a few years ago, is only grown in these countries in small quantities. It is very rich in sugar, and cattle relish it greatly. Its composition, according to Dr. Voelcker, is as follows:—
Water 81·80
Albuminous matters 1·53
Insoluble ditto 0·66
Sugar 5·85
Wax and fatty matter 2·55
Mucilage, pectin, and digestible matters 2·59
Indigestible woody fibre 4·03
Mineral matter 0·99
———
100·00
The plants referred to in the above analysis were cut in September. It is found that the composition of the plant is very different at different seasons.
Green Rye is employed as a forage crop, for which purpose it is well adapted. It is about equal in nutritive power to clover. According to Dr. Voelcker its composition is as follows:—
Water 75·423
Flesh-formers 2·705
Fatty matter 0·892
Gum, pectin, sugar, &c. 9·134
Woody-fibre 10·488
Mineral matter 1·358
———
100·000
Buckwheat is occasionally cut in a green state and used as food for stock. Its composition, according to Einhof and Crome, is as follows:—
Water 82·5
Nitrogenous compounds 0·2
Extractive matters 2·6
Starch, &c. 4·7
Cellulose 10·0
———
100·0
Rape is one of our most valuable plants for stock feeding. Two varieties are cultivated in these countries—the summer rape (Brassica Campestris oleifera) and winter rape (Brassica rapus). The great utility of rape arises from the circumstance of its being generally obtained as a stolen crop; for otherwise it is not quite equal to other plants that might be substituted for it—cabbages, &c. This plant is very rich in oily matters, and has been found well adapted both for the feeding of cattle and the fattening of sheep. Its composition, according to Voelcker, is shown in this table:—
COMPOSITION OF GREEN RAPE.
Water 87·050
Flesh-formers 3·133
Fatty matters 0·649
Other respiratory substances 4·000
Woody fibre 3·560
Mineral matter (ash) 1·608
———
100·000
With respect to the value of rape for the feeding of stock in spring, Mr. Rham makes the following remarks:—
If the crop is very forward it may be slightly fed off, but in general it is best to let it remain untouched till spring. In the end of March and the beginning of April it will be a great help to the ewes and lambs. It will produce excellent food till it begins to be in flower, when it should immediately be ploughed up. The ground will be found greatly recruited by this crop, which has taken nothing from it, and has added much by the dung and urine of the sheep. Whatever be the succeeding crop, it cannot fail to be productive; and if the land is not clean, the farmer must have neglected the double opportunity of destroying weeds in the preceding summer, and in the early part of spring. If the rape is fed off in time, it may be succeeded by barley or oats, with clover or grass seeds, or potatoes, if the soil is not too wet. Thus no crop will be lost, and the rape will have been a clear addition to the produce of the land. Any crop which is taken off the land in a green state, especially if it be fed off with sheep, may be repeated without risk of failure, provided the land be properly tilled; but where cole or rape have produced seed, they cannot be profitably sown in less than five or six years after on the same land. The cultivation of rape or cole for spring food cannot be too strongly recommended to the farmers of heavy clay soils.
The Mustard Plant is occasionally used as food for sheep, for which purpose its composition shows it to be well adapted. Voelcker's analysis proves it to be very rich, relatively, in muscle-forming elements and in mineral matters; it might, therefore be with advantage combined with food relatively deficient in these principles.
COMPOSITION OF FRESH MUSTARD.
Water 86·30
Albuminous matters 2·87
Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, oil, &c.) 4·40
Woody fibre 4·39
Ash 2·04
———
100·00
The Prickly Comfrey has been recommended as a good forage plant. It yields an abundant crop—or rather crops, for it may be cut several times in the year. The plant is a handsome one, and it might combine the useful with the ornamental if it were cultivated on demesne or villa farms. Dr. Voelcker states its composition to be as follows:—
Water 88·400
Flesh-forming substances 2·712
Heat and fat-producing matters 6·898
Ash 1·990
———
100·000
Chicory is used as a forage crop on the Continent, and Professor John Wilson surmises that it may yet be generally cultivated for this purpose in Great Britain. At present it is rarely grown except for the sake of its roots, which are used as partial substitutes for, or adulterants of, coffee.
COMPOSITION OF CHICORY, ACCORDING TO ANDERSON.
Fresh roots. Fresh leaves.
Water 80·58 90·94
Nitrogenous matters 1·72 1·01
Non-nitrogenous substances 16·39 6·63
Ash 1·31 1·42
——————
100·00 100·00
Yarrow (Achillæa millefolium) is usually regarded as a weed, but sheep are very fond of it, and when they can get it, never fail to eat it greedily. It possesses astringent properties. Some writers have recommended it as a good crop for warrens and sands. Its composition, according to Way, is as follows:—
DRIED YARROW.
Albuminous matter 10·34
Fatty matters 2·51
Starch, gum, &c. 45·46
Woody fibre 32·69
Mineral matter 9·00
———
100·00
Melons and Marrows have been used, but to a very limited extent, as food for stock. Mr. Blundell advocates their use in seasons of drought. He states that he has obtained more than forty tons per acre of both melons and marrows. They are relished by horses, oxen, sheep, and pigs. Mr. Blundell's advocacy has not been attended with much success, but it would be desirable to give these vegetables a further trial.
Dr. Voelcker's analysis of the cattle melon shows that it contains:—
Water 92·98
Albuminous matters 1·53
Oil ·73
Sugar, gum, &c. 2·51
Fibre 1·65
Ash ·60
———
100·00
The Cabbage.—The composition of the Drumhead Cabbage has been studied by Dr. Anderson. He found a larger proportion of nutriment in the outer leaves than in the "heart," and ascertained that the young plants were richer in nutriment than those more advanced in age. His results show the desirability of cultivating the open-leaved, rather than the compact varieties of this plant.
ANALYSIS OF THE CABBAGE.—BY DR. ANDERSON.
Outer leaves. Heart leaves.
Water 91·08 94·48
Compounds containing nitrogen 1·63 0·94
Compounds destitute of nitrogen, such as gum, sugar, fibre, &c. 5·06 4·08
Ash (mineral matter) 2·23 0·50
——————
100·00 100·00
According to Fromberg, the composition of the whole plant is as follows:—
Water 93·40
Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming compounds 1·75
Non-nitrogenous substances such as gum, sugar, &c. 4·05
Mineral matter 0·80
———
100·00
Dr. Voelcker, who has more recently analysed the cattle cabbage, furnishes us with the following details of its composition:—
COMPOSITION OF CABBAGE LEAVES (OUTSIDE GREEN LEAVES).
Water 83·72
Dry matter 16·28
———
100·00
The fresh and the dry matter consisted of:—
Fresh Matter. Dry matter. Per cent.
* Protein compounds 1·65 10·19
Non-nitrogenous matter 13·38 82·10
Mineral matter 1·25 7·71
——————
16·28 100·00
* Containing nitrogen ·26 1·63
In the following table the results of a more elaborate analysis of the heart and inner leaves are shown:—
COMPOSITION OF HEART AND INNER LEAVES.
In natural state.Dry.
Water 89·42
Oil ·08 ·75
* Soluble protein compounds 1·19 11·24
Sugar, digestible fibres, &c. 7·01 66·25
Soluble mineral matter ·73 6·89
† Insoluble protein compounds ·31 2·93
Woody fibre 1·14 10·77
Insoluble mineral matter ·12 1·17
——————
100·00 100·00
* Containing nitrogen ·19 1·79
† Containing nitrogen ·05 ·47
If I were asked what plant I considered the most valuable for forage, I certainly should pronounce an opinion in favor of cabbage. This crop yields a much greater return than that afforded by the Swedish turnip, and it is richer in nutritive matter. Cabbages are greedily eaten by sheep and cattle, and the butter of cows fed upon them is quite free from the disagreeable flavor which it so often possesses when the food of the animal is chiefly composed of turnips. If the cabbage admitted of storing, no more valuable crop could be cultivated as food for stock.
Mr. John M'Laren, of Inchture, Scotland, gives in the "Transactions of the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland for 1857," a report on the feeding value of cabbage, which is highly favorable to that plant:—
On the 1st December, 1855 (says the reporter), two lots of Leicester wethers, bred on the farm, and previously fed alike, each lot containing ten sheep, were selected for the trial by competent judges, and weighed. Both lots were put into a field of well-sheltered old lea, having a division between them. All the food was cut and given them in troughs, three times a day. They had also a constant supply of hay in racks.
At the end of the trial, on the 1st of March, 1856, the sheep were all re-weighed, sent to the Edinburgh market, and sold same day, but in their separate lots. As I had no opportunity of getting the dead weights, I requested Mr. Swan, the salesman, to give his opinion on their respective qualities. This was to the effect that no difference existed in their market value, but that the sheep fed on turnips would turn out the best quality of mutton, with most profit for the butcher. Both lots were sold at the same price, viz., 52s. 6d. During the three months of trial, we found that each lot consumed about the same weight of food—viz., 8 tons 13 cwt. 47 lb. of cabbage, being at the rate of 211⁄3 lbs. per day for each sheep, and 8 tons 10 cwt. 7 lb. Swedes, being at the rate of 209⁄10 lb. per day.
It will be seen, by referring to the table (see next page), that in this trial the Swede has proved of higher value for feeding purposes than the cabbage, making 11 st. 4 lb. of gain in weight, whilst the cabbage made 10 st. 9 lb. At the same time, 3 cwt. 40 lb. less food were consumed; and taking the mutton gained at 6d. per lb., the Swedes consumed become worth 9s. 3¼d. per ton, while the gain on the cabbage, at the same rate, makes them worth 8s. 7d. per ton. But from the great additional weight of the one crop grown over the other, the balance, at the prices, c., mentioned, is in favor of the cabbage by £1 15s. 11¾d. per acre.
These results certainly speak strongly in favor of the cabbage; but the weight of the acreable crop of cabbages stated in the table appears to be unusually great. So heavy a crop is rarely obtained.
Furze (Gorse, or Whins).—Notwithstanding the natural historical knowledge of Goldsmith, his poetical description of the furze is far from accurate. This plant, instead of being "unprofitably gay," deserves to rank amongst the most valuable vegetables cultivated for the use of the domestic animals. It grows and flourishes under conditions which most injuriously affect almost every other kind of fodder and green crop. Prolonged drought in spring and early summer not unfrequently renders the hay crop a scanty one; while autumn and winter frosts change the nutriment of the mangels and turnips into decaying and unwholesome matter. Under such circumstances as these, the maintenance of cattle in good condition is very expensive, unless in places where a supply of furze is available. This plant is rather improved than otherwise by exposure to a temperature which would speedily destroy a mangel or a turnip; and, although it thrives best when abundantly supplied with rain, it can survive an exceedingly prolonged drought without sustaining much injury.
TABLE Showing the Difference of Weight grown on an Acre of Cabbage and an Acre of Swedes, and the Value of each for Feeding.
No. Of Sheep In Each Lot. Kinds of Food. Weight of Ten Sheep, 1st Dec., 1855. Weight of Ten Sheep, 1st Mar., 1856. Gain. Value of Gain taking Mutton at 6d. per lb. Total Weight of Food consumed in Three Months by each lot. Value of Food consumed per Ton. Total Weight per Acre of each Crop. Value of each Crop per Acre. Extra Cost on each Crop per Acre. Free Value of each Crop per Acre. Balance in favor of Cabbage per Acre.
st. lb. st. lb. st. lb. £ s. d. tons. cwt. lb. s. d. tons. cwt. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d.
10 Cabbage 90 10 101 5 10 9 3 14 6 8 13 47 8 7 42 14 18 6 6 4 10 11 13 15 7 1 15 11¾
10 Swedes 89 3 100 7 11 4 3 19 0 8 10 7 9 3¼ 26 12 12 6 7¼ 0 7 0 11 19 7¼
The furze is a member of the family Leguminosæ, which includes so many useful plants, such as, for example, the pea, the bean, and the clovers. There are three varieties of it met with in this country—namely, the common furze, Ulex europæus, the dwarf furze, Ulex nanus, and the Irish, or upright furze, Ulex strictus.
The common furze is a hardy shrub, and grows luxuriantly at an elevation far higher than the limits of cereal cultivation. It flourishes on any kind of soil which is moderately dry, and heavy crops may easily be raised on uplands almost incapable of producing grass. The dwarf furze is never cultivated, but as it grows at a still greater elevation, and on a poorer soil than the larger varieties, it might be profitably cultivated on very high uplands. The Irish furze yields a softer and less prickly food than the other kinds, but as it does not usually bear seed, and must therefore be propagated by cuttings, its cultivation has hitherto been limited to but a few localities.
The produce of an acre of furze appears to be at least equal to that of an acre of good meadow. The Rev. Mr. Townsend of Aghada, county of Cork—the most zealous and successful advocate for the cultivation of this plant—informed me that he had obtained so much as 14 tons per acre; a fact which proves that the furze is a plant which is well deserving of the attention of the farmer.
Furze is an excellent food for every kind of stock. Cattle, although they may at first appear not to relish its prickly shoots, soon acquire a fondness for it. I have known several instances of herds being fed almost if not entirely on the bruised plant, and to keep in good condition. The late Professor Murphy, of Cork, stated that on the farm of Mr. Boulger, near Mallow, thirty-five cows were fed on crushed furze, which they "devoured voraciously." Each animal received daily from four to six stones of the crushed plant, to which were added a little turnip pulp and a small quantity of oats. The milk and butter yielded by these cows were considered excellent. In a letter addressed to me by a very intelligent feeder, Mr. John Walsh,27 of Stedalt, county of Dublin, the following remarks in relation to this subject are made:—
I had lately an opportunity of seeing a herd of cattle of about sixty head, of which twenty had been fed with furze prepared with my machine for about six weeks before being put out to grass. The condition of these was so superior that I pointed out every one of them, one after the other, out of the herd. The owner of the cattle had made the same observation; it was new to him but not to me.
Furze is seldom given to sheep or pigs, but I believe that it might with advantage enter into the dietary of those animals. Some of my friends who have lately tried it with pigs report favorably as to its effects. Horses partly fed upon this plant keep in good condition; it is usually given to them cut merely into lengths of half an inch or an inch, but it would be better to give it to them finely bruised. A horse during the night will eat a much larger quantity of coarsely cut furze than of the well bruised article, because he is obliged to expend a great deal of muscular power in bruising the furze, and must, consequently, use an additional quantity of the food to make up for the corresponding waste of tissue.
Until quite recently, the chemistry of the furze was very little studied. The analysis of this plant made many years ago by Sprengel gave results which, in the present advanced condition of agricultural chemistry, are quite valueless. The late Professor Johnston merely determined its amount of water, organic matter, and ash. I believe I was the first to make a complete investigation into the composition of this plant according to the methods of modern chemical analysis. I made two examinations. The first was of shoots cut on the 25th April, 1860, on the lands of Mr. Walsh of Stedalt, near Balbriggan, in the county of Dublin. The shoots were, in great part, composed of that year's growth, with a small proportion of the shoots of the previous year. They were very moist, and their spines, or thorns, were rather soft. Their centesimal composition was as follows:—
Water 78·05
Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 2·18
Fat-forming principles (oil, starch, sugar, gum, &c.) 8·20
Woody fibre 10·17
Mineral matter (ash) 1·40
———
100·00
The second analysis was made of furze cut on the 15th August, 1862. The following were the results obtained:—
Water 72·00
Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 3·21
Oil 1·18
Other fat-forming principles (starch, gum, &c.) 8·20
Woody fibre 13·33
Mineral matter 2·08
———
100·00
The specimen was allowed to lie for a few days in a dry room, so that it lost a little water whilst in my possession, before it was subjected to analysis.
The sample cut in August contained a larger amount of nutriment than the specimen analysed in the spring; but its constituents appeared to be much less soluble in water, and therefore, less digestible.
Professor Blyth, of the Queen's College, Cork, has more recently made a very elaborate analysis of furze, grown in the county of Cork, which gave results still more favorable to the plant than those arrived at by me—probably because the specimens furnished to him were drier than mine.
ANALYSIS OF FRESH FURZE, BY DR. BLYTH.
100 parts contain:—
Matters readily soluble in water and easily digested.
* Albuminous, or flesh-forming compounds 1·68
Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements, viz., sugar, gum, &c. &c. 7·83
Ash 0·83
———
Total matters soluble in water 10·34
* Containing nitrogen 0·265
Matters insoluble in water.
Oil 2·14
† Albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds 2·83
Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements 1·00
Woody fibre 28·80
Ash 3·23
———
Total matters insoluble in water 38·00
Water, expelled at 212 51·50
———
99·48
Total nitrogen in plant 0·71
Total albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds 4·51
Total respiratory, or heat and fat-producing compounds 8·83
Total ash 4·06
The ash contains in 100 parts:—
Potash 20·00
Phosphoric acid 8·72
† Containing nitrogen 0·445
If the large per-centage of water be deducted, the dry, nutritive matters can then be more readily compared with the amount of the same substances in other feeding articles:—
Composition of 100 parts of furze dried at 212°. Matters soluble in water in the dry furze.
* Albuminous compounds 3·47
Respiratory elements 16·15
Ash 1·71
———
Total matters soluble in water 21·33
* Containing nitrogen 0·546
Matters insoluble in water in the dry furze.
Oil 4·41
† Albuminous compounds 5·84
Respiratory elements 2·06
Woody fibre 59·38
Ash 6·66
———
Total matters insoluble in water 78·35
———
99·68
Total nitrogen in dry furze 1·46
Total albuminous compounds 9·13
Total respiratory elements 18·20
Total ash 8·36
† Containing nitrogen 0·917
Composition of ash per cent.
Potash 20·00
Phosphoric Acid. 8·72
The results of these analyses show that dry furze contains an amount of nutriment equal to that found in dry grass. The nature of its composition resembles, as might be expected, that of its allied plants, vetches, &c., and therefore it exceeds the grasses in its amount of ready formed fatty matter.
SECTION IV.
STRAW AND HAY.
Straw.—At the present time, when the attention of the farmer is becoming more and more devoted to the production of meat, it is very desirable that his knowledge of the exact nutritive value of the various feeding substances should be more extensive than it is. No doubt, most feeders are practically acquainted with the relative value of corn and oil-cake—of Swedish turnips and white turnips; but their knowledge of the food equivalents of many other substances is still very defective. For example, every farmer is not aware that Indian corn is a more economical food than beans for fattening cattle, and less so for beasts of burthen. Locust-beans, oat-dust, malt-combings, and many other articles, occasionally consumed by stock, have not, as yet, determinate places assigned to them in the feeder's scale of food equivalents.
The points involved in the economic feeding of stock are not quite so simple as some farmers, more especially those of the amateur class, appear to believe. There are many feeders who sell their half-finished cattle at a profit, and yet they cannot, without loss, convert their stock into those obese monsters which are so much admired at agricultural shows. The complete fattening of cattle is a losing business with some feeders, and a profitable one with others. Stall-feeding is a branch of rural economy which, perhaps more than any other, requires the combination of "science with practice;" yet how few feeders are there who have the slightest knowledge of the composition of food substances, or who are agreed as to the feeding value, absolute or relative, of even such well-known materials as oil-cake, straw, or oats! "It is thus seen how inexact are the equivalents which are understood to be established for the different foods used for the maintenance of the animals. It is equally plain, when we reflect on the different methods pursued for the preservation of the animals, that we are still far from having attained that perfection towards which our efforts tend. Visit one hundred farms, taken by chance in different parts of the country, and you will find in each, methods directly opposite—a totally peculiar manner of managing the stalls; you will see, in short, that the conditions of food, of treatment, and of hygiene, remain not understood in seven-eighths of rural farms."28
The straws of the cereal and leguminous plants are a striking illustration of the erroneous opinions and practices which prevail amongst agriculturists with respect to particular branches of their calling. The German farmers regard straw as the most valuable constituent of home-made fertilisers, and their leases in general prohibit their selling off the straw produced on their farms. Yet chemical analysis has clearly proved that the manurial value of straw is perfectly insignificant, and that, as a constituent of stable manure, it is chiefly useful as an absorbent of the liquid egesta of the animals littered upon it. As food for stock, straw was at one time regarded by our farmers as almost perfectly innutritious; some even went so far as to declare that it possessed no nutriment whatever, and even those who used it, did so more with the view of correcting the too watery nature of turnips, than with the expectation of its being assimilated to the animal body. Within the last few years, however, straw has been largely employed by several of the most intelligent and successful feeders in England, who report so favorably upon it as an economical feeding stuff, that it has risen considerably in the estimation of a large section of the agricultural public. Now, even without adopting the very high opinion which Mechi and Horsfall entertain relative to the nutritive power of straw, I am altogether disposed to disagree with those who affirm that its application should be restricted to manurial purposes. Unless under circumstances where there is an urgent demand for straw as litter, that article should be used as food for stock, for which purpose it will be found, if of good quality, and given in a proper state, a most economical kind of dry fodder—equal, if not superior to hay, when the prices of both articles are considered.
The composition of straw is very different from that of grain. The former contains no starch, but it includes an exceedingly high proportion of woody fibre; the latter is in great part composed of starch, and contains but an insignificant amount of woody fibre. Dr. Voelcker, the consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and Dr. Anderson, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, have made a large number of analyses of the straws of the cereal and leguminous plants, the results of which are of the highest interest to the agriculturist. In the following tables the more important results of these investigations are given:—
ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. VOELCKER.
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. No. 9. No. 10.
Wheat, just ripe and well harvested. Wheat, over ripe. Barley, dead ripe. Barley, not too ripe. Oat, cut green. Oat, cut when fairly ripe. Oat, over ripe. Bean. Pea. Flax Chaff.
Water 13·33 9·17 15·20 17·50 16·00 16·00 16·00 19·40 16·02 14·60
Albumen, and other protein compounds:—
a. Soluble in water 1·28 0·06 0·68 }5·73 5·51 2·62 1·29 1·51 3·96 }4·75
b. Insoluble in water 1·65 2·06 3·75 2·98 1·46 2·36 1·85 5·90
Oil 1·74 0·65 1·36 1·17 1·57 1·05 1·25 1·02 2·34 2·82
Sugar, mucilage, extractive matters, &c. (soluble in water) 4·26 3·46 2·24 }71·44 16·04 10·57 3·19 4·18 8·32 8·72
Digestible woody fibre and cellulose 19·40 }82·26 5·97 26·34 30·17 27·75 2·75 17·74 18·56
Indigestible fibre &c. 54·13 66·54 24·86 31·78 41·82 65·58 42·79 43·12
Inorganic matter:—
a. Soluble 1·13 1·29 2·88 }4·52 5·76 3·64 2·26 2·31 2·72 4·07
b. Insoluble 3·08 1·05 0·38 0·94 2·71 4·08 1·40 2·21 3·36
100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00
⁂ This table contains in a condensed form all the results of Voelcker's analyses of the straws which are given in his paper published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. xxii., part 2. 1862.
Nos. 5, 6, and 7 were analysed shortly after being cut, when they contained a high proportion of water. They have, therefore, been calculated to contain 16 per cent. of moisture so as to arrive at accurate relative results.
ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. ANDERSON.
Wheat from East Lothian. Wheat from Kent. Barley from East Lothian. Barley from Kent. Sandy Oat from Kent. Oat from Sea level, East Lothian. Oat from 850 feet above Sea level, East Lothian. Oat from Mellhill, Inchture, Scotland. Oat from Kent (White one side.)
Water 10·62 10·93 11·15 11·44 11·15 11·10 11·70 10·95 12·60 11·28 11·70 10·55
Flesh-formers—
Soluble 0·86 0·37 1·37 1·42 0·39 0·66 0·40 1·03 0·67 0·92 0·95 0·33
Insoluble 0·51 1·12 1·00 1·54 1·12 1·98 0·93 0·43 0·38 0·39 1·21 0·33
Oil 0·80 1·00 1·50 0·97 0·88 1·05 1·45 0·77 1·25 1·36 1·60 1·00
Respiratory elements—
Soluble 2·68 6·68 5·26 3·22 6·11 4·56 10·12 6·90 7·16 7·42 12·01 6·23
Insoluble 44·88 36·43 38·79 35·56 38·38 27·95 33·52 34·77 24·28 29·55 23·35 30·95
Woody fibre 32·88 34·78 35·01 41·34 36·62 47·53 35·36 38·73 48·49 44·40 45·27 47·40
Ash 6·20 8·04 6·32 4·21 5·62 4·85 6·36 6·28 5·11 5·07 3·95 3·62
99·43 99·35 100·40 99·70 100·27 99·68 99·84 99·86 99·94 100·39 100·14 100·41
⁂ This table is compiled from Dr. Anderson's paper in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland for March, 1862.
Many very important conclusions are deducible from the facts recorded in these valuable tables. We learn from them that straw is more nutritious when it is cut in the ripe state than when it is permitted to over-ripen, and that green straw contains a far greater amount of nutriment than is found even in the ripe article. It appears also that the least nutritious kind of straw equals the best variety of turnips in its amount of flesh-forming principles, and greatly exceeds them in its proportion of fat-forming elements. We further learn that in general the different kinds of straw will be found to stand in the following order, the most nutritious occupying the highest, and the least nutritious the lowest place:—
1. Pea-haulm.
2. Oat-straw.
3. Bean-straw with the pods.
4. Barley-straw.
5. Wheat-straw.
6. Bean-stalks without the pods.
It is a matter to be regretted that we possess so little accurate knowledge of the chemical composition of the plants cultivated in Ireland. No doubt the analyses of English grown wheat, beans, mangels, and other plants, serve to give us a general idea of the nature of those vegetables when produced in this country. But this kind of information, though very important, must necessarily be defective, as differences in climate modify—often to a considerable extent—the composition of almost every vegetable. Thus, the results of Anderson's analyses prove Scotch oats to be superior, as a feeding stuff, to Scotch barley, whilst, according to Voelcker and the experience of most English feeders, the barley of parts of England is superior to its oats. It follows, then, that whilst the results of the analyses of straw, made by Voelcker and Anderson are of great interest to the Irish farmer, they would be still more important to him had the straw to which they relate been the produce of Irish soil. In order, therefore, to enable the Irish farmer to form a correct estimate of the value of his straw, we should put him in possession of a more perfect knowledge of its composition than that which is derivable from the investigations to which I have referred. The straws of the cereals—which alone are used here to any extent—should be analysed as carefully and as frequently as those of Great Britain have been; and if such were done, I have no doubt but that the results would indicate a decided difference in composition between the produce of the two countries. Some time ago I entered upon what, at the time, I had intended should be a complete investigation into the composition of Irish straws; but which want of time prevented me from making more than a partial one. The results are given in the following tables:—
ANALYSES OF IRISH OAT-STRAW.
No. 1. Obtained in the Dublin Market.
From Co. Wicklow. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4.
Water 14·00 14·00 14·00 14·00
Flesh-forming principles—
a. Soluble in water 4·08 2·02 2·04 1·46
b. Insoluble in water 2·09 3·16 3·00 2·23
Oil 1·84 1·40 1·26 1·00
Sugar, gum, and other fat-forming matters 13·79 12·67 10·18 11·16
Woody fibre 59·96 61·79 65·45 65·29
Mineral matter 4·24 4·96 4·07 4·86
——— ——— ——— ———
100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00
All the specimens of oats, the analyses of which are given in the preceding table, are assumed to contain 14 per cent. of water, in order the more correctly to compare their nutritive value. No. 1 contained 18·23 per cent. of water; No. 2, 12·90; No. 3, 12·74; and No. 4, 12·08. Oat straw, before its removal from the field, often contains nearly half its weight of water; but after being for some time stacked, the proportion of moisture rarely exceeds 14 per cent.
ANALYSES OF IRISH WHEAT-STRAW.
No. 1. No. 2.No. 3. Obtained in the Dublin Markets.
Green, changing to yellow. County Kildare. Ripe. County Dublin. Over Ripe. County Dublin. No. 4.No. 5. No. 6.
Water 13·00 13·15 12·14 10·88 11·22 12·12
Flesh-forming principles—
a. Soluble in water 1·25 0·98 0·44 0·06 0·42 0·30
b. Insoluble in water 1·26 1·40 1·41 1·90 1·00 1·76
Oil 1·22 1·13 1·14 0·90 1·17 1·08
Sugar, gum, and other fat-forming matters 4·18 3·98 3·88 4·08 3·89 4·30
Woody fibre 75·84 76·17 77·76 78·67 79·18 77·15
Mineral matter (ash) 3·25 3·19 3·23 3·51 3·12 3·29
——— ——— ——— ——— ——— ———
100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00
The results of these analyses are somewhat different from those arrived at by Voelcker and Anderson. They show that properly harvested Irish oat and wheat straws are far more valuable than those of Scotland, and somewhat less nutritive than those produced in England. They also show that wheat-straw is allowed to over-ripen, by which a very large proportion of its nutritive principles is eliminated and altogether lost, and a considerable part of the remainder converted into an insoluble, and therefore less easily digestible state. Nor is there any advantage to the grain gained by allowing it to remain uncut after the upper portion of the stem has changed from a green to a yellowish color; on the contrary, it also loses a portion—often a very considerable one—of its nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents. It has been clearly proved that wheat cut when green, yields a greater amount of grain, and of a better quality too, than when it is allowed to ripen fully; yet, how often do we not see fields of wheat in this country allowed to remain unreaped for many days, and even weeks, after the crop has attained to its full development!
The oat-straw obtained in the Dublin Market proved less valuable than the green straw which I selected myself from a field of oats; but the discrepancy between them was far less than between the nearly ripe wheat-straw and the straw of that plant purchased in Dublin. During visits which I have paid in harvest-time to the North of Ireland, I noticed that the oats were generally cut whilst green, whereas wheat was almost invariably left standing for at least a week after its perfect maturation, probably for the following reasons:—Firstly, because oats are more liable to shed their seed; secondly, because there is a greater breadth of that crop to be reaped, which necessitates an early beginning; and, lastly, because most farmers know that over-ripe oat-straw is worth but little for feeding purposes, as compared with the greenish-yellow article.
As compared with white turnips, the nutritive value of oat-straw stands very high, for whilst the former contains but little more than 1 per cent. of flesh-formers, and less than 5 per cent. of fat-formers, the latter includes about 4 per cent. of flesh-formers, and 13 per cent. of fat-formers. Again, whilst the amount of woody fibre in turnips is only about 3 per cent., that substance constitutes no less than 60 per cent. of oat-straw. In comparison with hay—taking into consideration the prices of both articles—oat-straw also stands high, as will be seen by comparing the following analyses of common meadow hay with that of properly harvested straw:—
Meadow Hay. Oat Straw.
Water 14·61 14·00
Flesh-forming constituents 8·44 6·17
Respiratory and fatty matters 43·63 15·63
Woody fibre 27·16 59·96
Mineral matter (ash) 6·16 4·24
——— ———
100·00 100·00
Woody fibre is as abundant a constituent of the straw of the cereals as starch is of their seeds, and if the two substances were equally digestible, straw would be a very valuable food—superior even to the potato. At one time it was the general belief that woody fibre was incapable of contributing in the slightest degree to the nutrition of animals, but the results of recent investigations prove that it is, to a certain extent, digestible. In the summer of 1859 two German chemists, Stöckhardt and Sussdorf, made a series of experiments, with the view of ascertaining whether or not the cellulose29 of the food of the sheep is assimilated by that animal. The results of this inquiry are of importance, seeing that they clearly prove that even the hardest kind of cellulose—sclerogen, in fact—is capable of being assimilated by the Ruminants. The animals selected were two wethers, aged respectively five and six years. They were fed—firstly, upon hay alone; secondly, upon hay and rye-straw; thirdly upon hay and the sawdust of poplar wood, which had been exhausted with lye (to induce the sheep to eat the sawdust, it was found necessary to mix through it some rye-bran and a little salt); fourthly, hay and pine-wood sawdust, to which was added bran and salt; fifthly, spruce sawdust, bran and salt; sixthly, hay, pulp of linen rags (from the paper-maker), and bran. The experiments were carried on from July till November, excepting a short time, during which the animals were turned out on pasture-land, to recover from the injurious effects of the fifth series of experiments—produced probably by the resin of the spruce. The animals, together with their food, drink, and egesta, were weighed daily. The amount of cellulose in the food was determined, and the proportion of that substance in the egesta was also ascertained; and as there was a considerable discrepancy between the two amounts, it was evident that the difference represented the weight of the cellulose assimilated by the animals. In this way it was ascertained that from 60 to 70 per cent. of the cellulose of hay, 40 to 60 per cent. of the cellulose of straw, 45 to 50 per cent. of the cellulose of the poplar wood, 30 to 40 per cent. of the cellulose of the pine, and 80 per cent. of the cellulose of the paper pulp was digested.
In stating the results of his analyses of the straws, Professor Voelcker sets down as "digestible" that portion of the cellulose which he found to be soluble in dilute acids and alkaline solutions; but he admits that the solvents in the stomach might dissolve a larger amount. The results of the experiments of Stöckhardt and Sussdorf prove that 80 per cent. of the cellulose of paper (the altered fibre of flax) is assimilable, and it is, therefore, not unreasonable to infer that the cellulose of a more palatable substance than paper might be altogether digestible.
The facts which I have adduced clearly prove that the straws of the cereals possess a far higher nutritive power than is commonly ascribed to them; that when properly harvested they contain from 20 to 40 per cent. of undoubted nutriment; and lastly, that it is highly probable that their so-called indigestible woody fibre is to a great extent assimilable.
The composition of cellulose is nearly, if not quite, identical with that of starch, and it may therefore be assumed to be equal in nutritive power to that substance—that is, it will, if assimilated, be converted into four-tenths of its weight of fat. Now as cellulose forms from six-tenths to eight-tenths of the weight of straws, it is evident that if the whole of this substance were digestible, straws would be an exceedingly valuable fattening food. When straw in an unprepared state is consumed, there is no doubt but that a large proportion of its cellulose remains unappropriated—nay more, it is equally certain that the hard woody fibre protects, by enveloping them, the soluble and easily digestible constituents of the straw from the action of the gastric juice. I would, therefore, recommend that straw should be either cooked or fermented before being made use of; in either of these states its constituents are far more digestible than when the straw is merely cut, or even when it is in the form of chaff. An excellent mode of treating straw is to reduce it to chaff, subject it to the action of steam, and mix it with roots and oil-cake or corn. Mr. Lawrence, of Cirencester, one of the most intelligent agriculturists in England, cooks his chaff, which he largely employs, in the following manner:—"We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening, they consume, per head per diem, 3 bushels of chaff mixed with just half a hundred-weight of pulped roots, exclusive of cake or corn; that is to say, rather more than 2 bushels of chaff are mixed with the roots, and given at two feeds, morning and evening, and the remainder is given with the cake, &c., at the middle day feed, thus:—We use the steaming apparatus of Stanley, of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the centre, in which the steam is generated, and which is connected by a pipe on the left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for steaming food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub lined with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into a thick soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank of sufficient size to contain one feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into this tank is laid chaff, about one foot deep, upon which a few ladles of soup are thrown in a boiling state; this is thoroughly mixed with the chaff with a three-grained fork, and pressed down firm; and this process is repeated until the slate tank is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two before feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the chaff, which has become softened, and prepared for ready digestion." A cheap plan is to mix the straw with sliced roots, moisten the mass with water, and allow it to remain until a slight fermentation has set in. This process effectually softens and disintegrates, so to speak, the woody fibre, and sets free the stores of nutritious matters which it envelopes. Some farmers who hold straw in high estimation, prefer giving it just as it comes from the field; they base this practice on the belief that Ruminants require a bulky and solid food, and that their digestive powers are quite sufficient to effect the solution of all the useful constituents of the straw. It may be quite true that cattle, as asserted, can extract more nutriment out of straw than horses can, but that merely proves the greater power of their digestive organs. No doubt the food of the Ruminants should be bulky; but I am quite sure that cooked or fermented straw is sufficiently so to satisfy the desire of those animals for quantity in their food.
So far as I can learn, all the carefully conducted feeding experiments to test the value of straw which have been made, have yielded results highly favorable to that article. Mr. Blundell, in a paper on "The Use and Abuse of Straw," read before the Botley (Hampshire) Farmer's Club, states that in his experience he found straw to be more economical than its equivalent of roots or oil-cake, in the feeding of all kinds of cattle:—
I find (says Mr. Blundell) that dairy cows, in the winter months, if fed on large quantities of roots, particularly mangels and carrots, will refuse to eat straw almost entirely, and become very lean; but they will always eat a full portion of sweet, well-harvested straw, when they get a small and moderate allowance of roots, say, for an ordinary-sized cow, 15 lbs. of mangel three times per day, the roots being given whole, just in the state they come from the store heap. Again, calves and yearlings being fed with roots in the same way, will eat a large quantity of straw, and when they have been kept under cover I have had them in first-rate condition for many years past. Also, in fattening beasts, when they get a fair allowance of roots, say 65 to 70 lbs. per day, with from 3 to 4 lbs. of cake or meal in admixture, they will eat straw with great avidity, and do well upon it, and make a profit. It is, however, often the case that bullocks receive 100 lbs., or upwards, of roots per day, with a large quantity of cake or meal, often 10 or 12 lbs. per day; they will not then look at straw, and are obliged to be fed with hay. The cost price of these quantities and kinds of food stands so high that the animals do not yield a profit; for although they may make meat a little faster, yet the proportionate increase is nothing compared to the increased cost of the feeding materials used.
Mr. Blundell gives us also the tabulated results of one of his experiments, which prove that by the use of straw there is to be obtained something more than manure by the feeding of stock:—
COST OF FEEDING AN OX PER WEEK WITH STRAW, ETC., ACCORDING TO MR. BLUNDELL.
s. d.
4 lbs. of oil-cake per day, or 38 lbs. per week, at £10 per ton 2 6
64 lbs. of roots ditto, or 4 cwt. ditto, at 13s. 4d. ditto 2 8
20 lbs. of straw feeding, or 1¼ cwt. ditto, at 30s. ditto 1 10½
20 lbs. of straw litter, or 1¼ cwt. ditto, at 15s. ditto 0 11
Attendance, &c., per week 0 1
————
8 0½
Deduct value of manure, per week 1 3½
————
6 9
Increased value of ox per week 10 0
Deduct cost of feeding 6 9
————
3 3
If we now turn to the study of the composition of straw regarded from an economic point of view, we shall find that the theoretical deductions therefrom harmonise with the results of actual feeding experiments. Let us assume that 100 parts of oat-straw contain on an average—
1 part of oil,
4 parts of flesh-formers,
10 parts of sugar, gum, and other fat-formers, and
30 parts of digestible fibre;
and if the price of the straw be 30s. per ton, we shall have at that cost the following quantities of digestible substances:—
ONE TON OF OAT-STRAW, AT 30s., CONTAINS:—
lbs.
30 Oil 22·4
Flesh-forming principles 89·6
Sugar, gum, and other fat-forming substances 224·0
Digestible fibre 672·0
———
1,008·0
31 Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch 952·0
Add flesh-formers 89·6
———
Total amount of nutritive matter 1,041·6
We shall now compare this table with a similar one in relation to the composition of linseed cake, which will place the greater comparative value of straw in a clearer light.
A fair sample of linseed-cake contains, centesimally—
Flesh-formers 26
Oil 12
Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c. 34
Woody fibre 6
ONE TON OF LINSEED CAKE, AT £11, CONTAINS:—
lbs.
Flesh-forming principles 582·4
Oil 268·8
Gum, sugar, and other fat-formers 761·6
Woody fibre 74·4
————
1,687·2
Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch 1,508·0
Add flesh-formers 582·4
————
Total amount of nutriment 2,090·4
These comparisons are very instructive and important. We learn from them that we pay £11 for 2,000 lbs. of nutriment, when we purchase a ton of linseed-cake, whereas, when we invest 30s. in a ton of straw, we receive 1,000 lbs. of digestible aliment. It cannot be said that I have strained any points in favour of the straw; on the contrary, I believe that when that article is cut in proper season and well harvested, its composition will be found far superior to that detailed in the comparative analysis. It must be borne in mind, too, that I take no account of the 30 per cent. of the so-called indigestible woody fibre which straw contains, and which, I believe, is partly assimilable under ordinary circumstances, and could be rendered nearly altogether digestible by proper treatment; on the other hand, I have assumed that the woody fibre of the oil-cake is completely digestible, although I believe it is in reality less so than the fibre of straw.
It is an important point in the composition of oil-cakes, that they contain a large proportion of ready-formed fatty matters which can, with but little alteration, be at once transmuted into animal fat. There are some individuals of the genus Homo to whose stomachs fat, per se, is intolerable; nevertheless, as a general rule, fatty substances exercise a favorable influence in the process of digestion, and, either in a separate state, or intimately commingled with other aliments, constitute a large proportion of the food of man. Digestion in the lower animals is, no doubt, similarly promoted by mixing with the aliments which are to be subjected to that process, a due proportion of oily or fatty matter. Straw is relatively deficient in the flesh-forming principles, and abounds in the fat-forming elements—of which, however, the most valuable, oil, is the least abundant. Now, if we add to straw a due proportion of some substance very rich in flesh-formers and oil, the compound will possess in nicely adjusted proportions all the elements of nutrition. Perhaps the best kind of food which we could employ for this purpose is linseed meal. It contains about 24 per cent. of flesh-formers, 35 per cent. of a very bland oil, and 24 per cent. of gum, sugar, and mucilage. Linseed-cake may be substituted for linseed-meal; but the meal, though its cost is 15 per cent. greater, is, I believe, rather the better article of the two. Its flesh-formers are more soluble, and its oil thrice more abundant and far more palatable than the same principles in most samples of oil-cake. An important point, too, is, that linseed, unlike linseed-cake, is not liable to adulteration. As linseed possesses laxative properties it cannot be largely employed; the addition, however, of bean-meal—the binding tendency of which is well known—to a diet partly composed of linseed will neutralise, so to speak, the relaxing influence of the oily seed. If oil-cakes be used as an adjunct to straw, rape-cake will be found more economical than linseed-cake. If it be free from mustard, well steamed, and flavored with a little treacle, or a small quantity of locust-beans, it will be readily consumed, and even relished, by dairy and fattening stock.
Hay.—There is no food substance more variable or more complex than hay, for under that term are included, not only mixtures of grasses, but also of leguminous plants—clover, for example. The herbage of no two meadows is exactly alike; and the composition of the meadow plants is so greatly modified by differences of climate, soil, and mode of culture, that we have nothing to excite our wonder in the extreme variability of hay.
The composition of the hay made from clover, lucerne, and various other kinds of artificial grasses, is shown in the table—which is based on the results of Way's analyses:—
COMPOSITION OF THE HAY OF ARTIFICIAL GRASSES.
Flesh-forming Substances. Fatty Matters. Respiratory Substances. Woody Fiber. Ash. Water.
Trifolium pratense—Red clover 18·79 3·06 37·06 16·46 7·97 16·6
Trifolium pratense perenne—Purple clover 15·98 3·41 35·35 21·63 6·96 "
Trifolium incarnatum—Crimson clover 13·83 3·11 31·25 26·99 8·15 "
Trifolium medium—Cowgrass 20·27 2·97 30·30 20·12 9·67 "
Do., second specimen 15·64 3·98 41·38 15·70 6·64 "
Trifolium procumbens—Hop trefoil 17·07 3·89 36·55 18·88 6·94 "
Trifolium repens—White trefoil 15·63 3·65 33·37 22·11 8·57 "
Vicia sativa—Common Vetch 19·68 2·55 32·87 22·82 5·42 "
Vicia sepium—Bush vetch 19·23 2·40 27·62 25·87 8·21 "
Onobrychis sativa—Sainfoin 15·38 2·51 38·30 20·59 6·56 "
Medicago sativa—Lucerne 10·63 2·30 33·47 28·51 8·42 "
Medicago lupulina—Yellow clover 20·50 3·38 27·76 22·66 9·03 "
Plantago lanceolata—Rib grass 11·91 3·06 33·58 27·56 7·23 "
Poterium sanguisorba—Burnet 13·96 3·34 39·50 19·89 6·64 "
Achillea millefolium—Millefoil 8·62 2·09 37·88 27·24 7·50 "
Mean 15·81 3·18 34·42 22·47 7·59 16·6
Very many analyses of hay have been made by British and Continental chemists, the results of which are of great interest to the agriculturist. The composition of the natural and artificial grasses, which is shown in the tables given in pages 158-9 will, if we reduce their per-centage of water to 16, give us an approximation to the composition of hay. If the herbage, too, be sown in the proper time, and the hay-making process be skilfully conducted, there will be but little difference, except in the amount of water, between the plants in their fresh and dry state; but owing to inopportune wet weather, and carelessness in manipulation, excellent herbage is not unfrequently converted into inferior hay.
According to Dr. Voelcker, the average composition of meadow-hay, as deduced from the results of twenty-five analyses, is as follows:—
Water 14·61
Flesh-forming constituents 8·44
Respiratory and fatty matters 43·63
Woody fibre 27·16
Mineral matter (ash) 6·16
———
100·00
Dr. Anderson's analysis of meadow-hay, one year old, and of inferior quality, gave the following results:—
Water 13·13
Flesh-forming matters 4·00
Non-nitrogenous substances 77·61
Mineral matter 5·26
———
100·00
The results of the investigations of Way prove that the herbage of water-grass meadows is more nutritious than that of dry meadows—results perfectly harmonious with the experience of practical men.
It is a somewhat general belief, that the aftermath, or second cutting, is less nutritious than the first cutting; but there appears to be no chemical difference between the two crops, provided they be saved under equally favorable conditions. According to Dr. Anderson, the composition of clover-hay of the second cutting is as follows:—
Water 16·84
Flesh-forming principles 13·52
Non-nitrogenous matters 64·43
Mineral matter (ash) 5·21
———
100·00
I have already shown the importance of reaping in proper season—not less necessary is it to mow before the plants ripen fully, and even before they flower. The results of the experiments of Stöckhardt, Hellreigel, and Wolff, in relation to this point, are very interesting, and are well worthy of reproduction here.
RESULTS OF STÖCKHARDT'S AND HELLREIGEL'S EXPERIMENTS.
Stem. Leaves.
Water in Fresh Plant. Hay. Water in Fresh Plant. Hay.
Flesh-forming Matters. Ash. Flesh-forming Matters. Ash.
Clover cut on the 4th June, quite young 82·80 13·16 9·71 83·50 27·17 9·42
23rd " ready for cutting 81·72 12·72 9·00 82·68 27·69 9·00
9th July, beginning to flower 82·41 12·40 6·12 77·77 15·83 10·46
29th July, full flower 78·30 9·28 4·63 70·80 19·20 9·58
21st August, ripe 69·40 6·75 4·82 65·70 18·94 12·33
RESULTS OF WOLFF'S EXPERIMENT.
Red Clover. Alsike Clover.
Beginning to flower, 11th June. Full flower, 25th June. Beginning to flower, 23rd June. Full flower, 29th June.
Fresh. Hay. Fresh. Hay. Fresh. Hay. Fresh. Hay.
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.
Water 83·07 16·66 76·41 10·66 86·98 16·66 82·60 16·66
Ash 1·43 7·04 1·67 5·90 1·12 7·17 1·45 6·94
Woody fibre 4·24 20·87 8·88 37·37 3·79 24·26 5·11 24·47
Nutritive substances 11·26 55·43 13·04 46·07 8·11 51·91 10·84 51·93
During the operation of converting the grass—"natural" or "artificial"—into hay, there is more or less loss of nutritive matter sustained by fermentation, the dispersion of the smaller leaves by the wind, and other agencies. But this unavoidable loss is trivial when compared with the prodigious waste sustained, in Ireland at least, by allowing the hay to remain too long in cocks in the field. "Within the last three or four years," says Mr. Baldwin, of the Glasnevin Albert Model Farm, "we have made agricultural tours through twenty-five of the thirty-two counties of Ireland; and from careful consideration of the subject, and having in some instances used a tape-line and weighing-machine to assist our judgment, we have come to the conclusion that one-twentieth of the hay-crop of Ireland is permitted to rot in field-cocks. The portion on the ground, as well as that on the outside of the cocks, is too often only fit for manure. And the loss of aftermath, and of the subsequent year's crop (if hay or pasture), suffers to the extent of from sixpence to one shilling per acre. If we unite all these sources, the loss sustained annually in this country is something serious to contemplate. On an average, for all Ireland, it is not under 20 per cent., or a fifth of the actual value of the crop." This is a startling statement; but I do not believe it to be an exaggeration of the actual state of things.
Damaged Hay and Straw.—Damaged corn and potatoes, so much injured as to be unfit for human food, are generally given, and with apparently good results, to the inferior animals. The "meat manufacturing machines," as the edible varieties of the domesticated animals are now generally termed, are not very dainty in their choice of food; and vegetable substances which would excite the disgust of the lords of the creation are rendered nutritious and agreeable by being reorganised in the mechanisms of oxen, sheep, and pigs.
Now, although it is pretty generally known that musty corn and diseased potatoes form good feeding stuffs, it is not so patent whether or not the natural food of stock, such as hay and straw in a diseased state, is proper food for those animals. This question is worthy of consideration. Firstly, I shall describe the nature of the diseases which most frequently affect fodder; these are, "mildew" and "mould." These diseases are produced by the ravages of minute and very low forms of vegetable life, termed by the botanists epiphytical fungi. The mildew (Puccinia graminis) generally attacks the grasses when they are growing, and is more frequently met with on rich and heavily manured soils. In localities where heavy night-fogs and dews are of common occurrence, this pest often destroys whole crops. On the other hand, in light, sandy, and well-drained soils, and in warm and dry districts, the mildew is a rare visitant. The "blue mould" (Aspergillis glaucus) attacks hay and straw in the stack or rick, and without any regard to their origin—no matter whether they were the produce of the wettest or the dryest, the warmest or the coldest of soils. The chief condition in the existence of the blue mould is excessive moisture. If the hay or straw be too green and succulent when put up, or if rain get at them in the rick, the mould is very likely to make its appearance, and the well-known odor termed musty will speedily be developed.
Neither the mildew nor the mould can, strictly speaking, be regarded as parasites, such as, for example, the flax-dodder, which feeds upon the healthy juices of the plant to which it is attached. It appears to me that the tissues and juices of the fodder-plants decay first, and then the mould or the mildew appears and feeds upon the decomposing matter. Now, as these vegetables belong to a poisonous class of fungi, it is more than probable that they convert the decomposing substance of the straw or hay into unwholesome, if not poisonous matter; and it is not unlikely but that the disagreeable odor which they evolve is designed by nature as a sign to the lower animals not to partake of mouldy food. There is no doubt but that most animals will instinctively reject fodder in this state; and the question arises, ought this odour to be destroyed or disguised, in order to induce the animals to eat the damaged stuff? The experience of most feeders who have largely consumed mouldy provender is, that although cattle may be induced to eat it, they never thrive upon such stuff if it form a heavy item in their diet. The reason of this is obvious. The nitrogenous portion of the straw is that which is chiefly assimilated by the fungi. And as this constituent is the one which contributes to the formation of muscle, and is naturally extremely deficient in straw and hay—more particularly the former—it follows that the animals fed upon mouldy fodder cannot elaborate it into lean flesh (muscle).
In the case of young stock, mouldy fodder is altogether inadmissible, for these animals require abundance of flesh-forming materials—precisely those which the fungi almost completely remove from the diseased fodder.
As large quantities of mouldy or mildewed provender are at the present moment to be found in many farmsteads, and as they are unsaleable, and must therefore be made use of in some way at home, it is well to consider the best way to dispose of them. In the case of straw, the greater portion will be required for litter, and if the whole of the damaged article can be disposed of in this way so much the better. If, however, there is more than is necessary for the bedding of the stock, it may be used in conjunction with sound fodder, but always in a cooked state. The greater part, if not the whole, of the diseased nitrogenous part of the straw is soluble in warm water, so that if the fodder be well steamed the poisonous matter will be eliminated to such an extent as to leave the article almost as wholesome as good straw, but not so nutritious. The straw cleansed in this way will be very deficient in flesh-forming, though not in fat-forming power, and this fact should be duly considered when the other items of the animal's food are being weighed out. Beans, malt-combs, and linseed-cake are rich in muscle-forming principles, and are consequently suitable adjuncts to damaged fodder; but the latter should never constitute the staple food, or be given unmixed with some sweet provender.
When the fodder is considerably damaged it becomes, after steaming, nearly as tasteless as sawdust. To this kind of stuff the addition of a small amount of some flavorous material is very useful. For damaged hay, Mr. Bowick recommends the following mixture:—
Fenugreek (powdered) 112parts.
Pimento 4 "
Aniseed 4 "
Caraways 4 "
Cummin 2 "
A pinch of this compound will render agreeably-flavored the most insipid kinds of fodder.
Mr. Bowick states that he had fed large numbers of bullocks on damaged hay, flavored with this compound, and that their health was not thereby injured in the slightest degree.
SECTION V.
ROOTS AND TUBERS.
The important part which the so-called root crops play in the modern systems of agriculture, has secured for them a large share of the attention of the chemist, so that our knowledge of their composition and relative nutritive value is very extensive. As compared with most other articles of food, the roots, as they are popularly called, of potatoes, turnips, mangels, carrots, and such like plants, contain a high proportion of water, and are not very nutritious; indeed, with the exception of the potato, none of them contain 20 per cent. of solid matter, and some not more than five per cent. They are, however, easily produced in great quantities, which compensates for their low nutritive value. I shall consider each of the more important roots separately.
The Turnip.—There are numerous varieties of this plant, which differ from each other in the relative proportions and total amount of their constituents, and even in different individuals of the same variety there is considerable variation in composition; hence the difficulty which has been felt by those who have endeavored to assign to this plant its relative nutritive value. From the average results of a great number of experiments, conducted both in the laboratory and the feeding-house, it is concluded that turnips are the most inferior roots produced in the field. The Swedish turnips are the most valuable kind: they contain a higher proportion of solid matter than the other varieties, and they are firmer and store better. The average composition of five varieties of turnips, as deduced from the results of the analyses of Anderson and Voelcker, is shown in the following table:—
ANALYSES OF TURNIPS.
Swedish Turnip. White Globe. Aberdeen Yellows. Purpletop Yellows. Norfolk Bell.
Water 89·460 90·430 90·578 91·200 92·280
Albuminous, or flesh-forming substances 1·443 1·143 1·802 1·117 1·737
Non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming substances (fat, gum, sugar, &c.) 5·932 5·457 4·622 4·436 2·962
Woody fibre 2·542 2·342 2·349 2·607 2·000
Mineral matter (ash) 0·623 0·628 0·649 0·640 1·021
100·000100·000 100·000100·000100·000
The Greystone Turnip is a variety which has only quite recently been introduced. It is stated to be an uncommonly productive crop, usually yielding returns from 30 to 50 per cent. greater than those obtained from other varieties of the turnip. The composition of the Greystone turnip appears to be inferior, so that probably it is not, after all, a more economical plant than the ordinary kinds of turnips.