Mr. Nicholson's Prize Essay. On a Rotation of Crops, and the most profitable mode of collecting, preserving and applying Manures.

(Communicated to the Albany County Agricultural Society.)

[CONCLUDED.]

Of manures which may be termed fossils we will mention the various kinds of calcareous substances, the stony matter called pyrites, coal, salt, peaty substances, silicious and aluminous earths. Limestone, gypsum, chalk and marle, are the calcareous substances we shall notice, and each in their order.

Limestone, (carbonate of lime,) has always more or less aluminous or silicious earth in its composition. Frequently also it contains magnesia. Limestone of this latter description, when calcined, makes what the English farmers call hot lime, which is more powerful in its effects, and therefore less of it should be applied at once to the soil. That without any mixture of magnesia is considered more durable in its operation, but less powerful. Magnesian limestone is known by its effervescing but little when plunged in nitric or other acid, while limestone that is not magnesian, when thus immersed produces a strong effervescence. The magnesian, also, when immersed in diluted nitric acid, or aqua fortis, renders the liquid of a milky appearance. It is usually of a brownish or pale yellow colour. Being more caustic when calcined, than common limestone, it is more efficacious in decomposing peaty earths, and is best adapted for soils which have too much either of peaty or vegetable matter in them.——Where lands have been injured by too plentiful an application of this lime, peaty earth should be applied to them to correct the evil.

The trials of lime in this country have been quite limited, and confined mostly to the middle states, particularly Pennsylvania. It has usually been applied there at the rate of about forty bushels to the acre; but whether the lime used there is magnesian, we have never understood. Lime may be applied as a top dressing or mixed with the soil. Its application has been found most successful when the first succeeding crop was Indian corn; afterwards wheat is grown to advantage. Instances are mentioned in the memoirs of the agricultural society of Philadelphia, where gypsum had no effect on worn out lands till they were first manured with lime.

British writers say that lime may be applied with equal advantage either when newly slaked or afterwards, that its effects are not always the same particularly where soils are different, but that usually it is a very durable manure. A much larger quantity is, however, applied in Great Britain than has been usual here; but perhaps the coolness of the summers there renders more requisite. We pretend to advise to no particular rules in the application of lime in this country, farther than that about forty bushels to the acre be first tried; but less for sandy soils, and perhaps more for those which are stiff clays would be advisable. In clays of this description, lime is particularly useful in destroying the adhesive quality of such soils, and thereby rendering them a more friable loam. Such has been its effects on the clay lands which abound so much in England. Where the lime is magnesian, let trials be made of about twenty bushels to the acre.

That country abounds much in the calcareous matter denominated chalk, which is also converted into lime by calcination, and used as a manure. It forms a weaker sort of lime. As this substance, however, is hardly to be found in this country, it will be unnecessary further to speak of this manure.

Gypsum, (sulphate of lime) is a most powerful stimulant to the growth of many crops in all dry soils in this country, but with the following exceptions: it has no sensible effect on lands newly cleared, on those in the vicinity of the ocean, nor on those which have been completely exhausted by severe cropping. In soils of this latter description, some pabulous matter must be given them for the gypsum to digest or act upon; and this may be a previous manuring with lime, marl, bog-earth, barn dung, or perhaps any substance that is calculated to improve the condition of the soil. It should also be observed that the application of gypsum frequently fails entirely of producing its effects if followed by uncommon drought, or unusually wet weather. It is generally most powerful when applied to growths of leguminous plants, to those extending in vines, such as the various species of the gourd tribe, the strawberry, &c. and to several sorts of the green crops, particularly potatoes, clover-grasses, lucern, &c. On fibrous rooted grasses, and those grain plants most nearly related to them, such as wheat, rye, oats, barley, &c. it has no sensible effect when applied as a top dressing to the growing plants. On Buckwheat it is very powerful, and for Indian corn it is also valuable. Judge Peters, (of Penn.) whose experience of its uses has been long and extensive, says that although he has found this manure of little use to many sorts of plants, when applied to them as a top dressing, yet he has invariably found that all plants derive benefit from their seeds being rolled in gypsum, after being soaked in some liquid, before sowing or planting. As a manure, however, for wheat or grain crops of similar kinds, immense benefit may be derived from it by applying it to the sward, as a top dressing, a suitable length of time before the ground is broken up. In this way two bushels of gypsum may be made to give an additional increase of eight or ten bushels of wheat to the acre. Take, for instance, land which in its natural state, and with the usual culture, will only yield ten bushels of wheat to the acre; in the fall or early in the spring, give it a top dressing of two bushels of gypsum to the acre; by the middle of June following, the land will exhibit a fresh green sward, principally of white clover; and when land is thus clothed in verdure, it is a sure indication of a great addition to its fertility, and that a good crop may then be expected. When, therefore, the green sward is thus formed, turn it under, and then, with the usual culture, twenty bushels of wheat to the acre may be expected, where only ten would have been had without this previous enriching of the ground by the application of gypsum. Yet the same quantity of this manure, applied as a top dressing to the growing crop of wheat, would have had no sensible effect. It should therefore be understood, that for all growths which derive little or no benefit from gypsum, when applied as a top dressing to the growing plants, the ground should be previously enriched by applying this manure to the sward, a suitable length of time before it is to be broken up, which length of time will usually be from two to three months. At all events as soon as the sward fully exhibits the effects of the gypsum it may then be turned under. Wherever a sward is to be turned under, this practice should be invariably pursued in order that the ground be rendered more fruitful for the crop that is to follow.

In this country gypsum is a great source of wealth, wherever soils are sensible to its effects. It has tended much to equalize the value of lands, by imparting an artificial fertility to those naturally more sterile, and that at a small expense.—But gypsum alone is by no means a sufficient source of dependence as a manure for keeping lands in the improved condition that is necessary for raising the best crops, and of course deriving the greatest profits. The farmer should attend also to making the most of such other manures as come conveniently within his reach. We are, however, no advocate for obtaining manures at any price; they may cost too much; but almost every farmer whose lands are of suitable quality, and who stocks them with as many cattle as he can keep in good order, and then makes the best use of the manure they afford, may usually, with this supply, and with the judicious use of gypsum, added to good culture, keep his lands in an improving condition.

But some soils are so constituted as to be of diminished value without a suitable mixture of other earths than those of which they are composed, and in such case are permanently benefited by such additions of earthy substances. If lands, for instance, are too sandy, or gravelly, the addition of clay to them, or what is better, of upland marle, will permanently improve the soil; and where these earths can be found within reasonable distance it will usually be labour well expended in making such applications. We will state a case in point. In the rear of the city of Albany lies an immense body of calcarious earth, which may properly be called a schistic marle. It is commonly called blue clay. This, when mixed with a due proportion of sand, forms a very fertile and durable soil. Farther west of the city lie large tracts of sandy lands, which require suitable proportions of this marle to render them fit for good culture, and with such additions much of them would be found very valuable. Where they lie sufficiently level, and are not too sandy, it will probably be found that from half a ton to a ton for every rod square would be sufficient to render them very fertile, and fitted for the most profitable rotations of crops.

This sort of marle, which may be found in various parts of the country, and very frequently under tracts of sandy lands, is a very valuable and permanent manure in all dry soils which are deficient of calcarious matter, and have not already too great a proportion of clay in their composition. This manure should be laid on the land as a top dressing, in order that it may be completely pulverized before it is mixed with the soil.

Upland marle is sometimes found of silicious texture, in which case it is good for stiff soils, as well as for others. It is also found of different colours, when combined with argillaceous matter, and of different qualities; that containing most lime or calcarious matter being always the best. Marles of this description are often very valuable in forming a principal ingredient in composts, of which we shall presently speak, and the same may be observed of the superior sorts of this manure found in bog swamps, of which something shall now be said.

This sort of marle is found, at greater or less depths, beneath the surface of many bog swamps, and is of a whitish, a greyish, or a brownish colour. The whitish is the most powerful, having most lime in its composition; the greyish is next in quality. The super stratum is either a bog earth, to wit, vegetable matter totally decomposed; or it is a peaty substance, or vegetable matter in a partial state of decomposition. The bog earth is good manure of itself, and may be used separately, or mixed with the marle; the peaty substance must undergo a further decomposition before it is rendered valuable as a manure, it being then rendered similar to bog earth. These manures when applied to growing crops are somewhat similar in their effects to those of gypsum. They are valuable as top dressings, or for mixing with the soil. Their effects are very powerful on Indian corn, and they are more or less valuable when applied to almost every sort of upland crop, with the exception of wheat, rye, barley, &c. For these they are to be applied to the sward, a suitable time before breaking it up, as has been mentioned in regard to gypsum. It should, however, be observed, that neither decomposed peat, nor bog earth, should be applied to soils which already contain too great a proportion of decomposed vegetable matter.

The condition of clay soils is also permanently improved by mixing a due proportion of sand in them. The most durable and perfect soil is chiefly composed of certain proportions of sand, clay, lime, and vegetable matter in a state of decomposition, and, whenever any soil is destitute of a due proportion of any of these, the addition of such earthy substance can never fail to serve as a manure.

The stony earth called Pyrites, when pulverised by the aid of a proper degree of calcination, is much used; and highly esteemed in Flanders as a top dressing for grass lands, as is mentioned in a communication of the late Chancellor Livingston to the Society for the promotion of the useful arts in this state. We will refer the reader to the 2d vol. published by that Society for the manner of preparing this manure, and the quantity to be used, &c.

Of coal, we shall merely state that, from the results of experiments made by the late Mr. Muhlenburg, (of Penn.) about 40 bushels to the acre of this substance, pulverised in the manner of gypsum, was found a good manure, when applied as a top dressing.

Common salt, pulverised, and applied as a top dressing, at the rate of from two to four bushels to the acre, has, in many instances, powerful effects as a manure. Sea-water is peculiarly adapted for this purpose. Mr. Deane, in his Farmer's Dictionary, mentions an instance where a crop of potatoes, and another of flax, were greatly increased in product by an application of sea-water to them while growing. About a pint of the water was applied to each hill of potatoes, and for the flax crop the water was sprinkled over the ground.

Some trials have been made in this country of using burnt clay as a manure, and its use is recommended, particularly for all dry arable lands, not inclining to clay. The first step in preparation for burning clay, is to have a considerable quantity of this earth dug up in spits, and laid to dry in the sun: when pretty well dried you prepare for burning by raising a little pile of dry wood in the shape of a pyramid, say 4 or 5 feet high;—round this you build up the dried spits of clay, leaving a hole at the bottom, for the entrance of the air, and another at the top for it to pass off. Such, at least, was the method formerly practised in Great Britain, but the modern improvement of retaining the smoke within the mass, agreeably to the plan spoken of by Mr. Cobbett, for burning earth, ought also to be pursued in burning clay. After the fire has been set to the wood you continue digging up fresh clay and piling it around and over the heap, as fast as the fire penetrates the mass, taking care, however, not to pile on so much at once as to extinguish the fire. If there be danger of its becoming extinguished, it may be advisable to make one or more holes in the sides of the heap by running a hole into it. The fresh earth is to be added during pleasure or until a sufficient quantity is burned. After the heap has cooled it is fit for use, either by mixing with the soil as directed by Mr. Cobbett, for applying burnt earth, of which we will next speak.

By a late improvement, earths, other than those of clay, are successfully converted into good manure, by the process of burning. It is effected by retaining the smoke within the mass of earth while in a state of ignition. Mr. Cobbett says he has tried this manure for the ruta-baga crop, and found it as efficacious as barn dung. His manner of preparing it, and which we believe would also be the best method of preparing burnt clay, is as follows:

"I make a circle," says Mr. C. "or an oblong square. I cut sods and build a wall all round three feet thick, and four feet high. I then light a fire in the middle with straw, dry sticks, boughs, or such like matter. I go on making this fire larger and larger, till it extend over the whole bottom of the pit or kiln. I put on roots of trees or any rubbish wood, till there be a good thickness of strong coals. I then put on the driest of the clods that I have ploughed up round about, so as to cover all the fire over. The earth thus put in will burn. You will see the smoke coming out at little places here and there. Put more clods wherever the smoke appears. Keep on thus for a day or two. By this time a great mass of fire will be in the inside. And now you may dig out the clay, or earth, any where round the kiln, and fling it on without ceremony, always taking care to keep in the smoke; for, if you suffer that to continue coming out at any one place, a hole will soon be made; the main force of the fire will draw to that hole; a blaze like that of a volcano, will come out, and the fire will be extinguished.

"A very good way is to put your finger into the top of the heap here and there; and if you find the fire very near, throw on more earth.—Not too much at a time, for that weighs too heavily on the fire, and keeps it back; and, at first will put it partially out. You keep on thus augmenting the kiln, till you get to the top of the walls, and then you may, if you like, raise the walls and still go on. No rain will affect the fire, when once it is become strong.

"The principle is to keep out air, whether at the top or the sides, and this you are sure to do, if you keep in the smoke. I burnt, this last summer, about thirty wagon loads in one round kiln, and never saw the smoke at all after the first four days. I put in my finger to try whether the fire was near the top; and when I found it approaching, I put on more earth. Never was a kiln more completely burnt.

"Now, this may be done on the skirt of any wood where the matters are all at hand. This mode is far preferable to the above ground burning in heaps. Because in the next place, the smoke escapes there, which is the finest part of the burnt matter. Soot, we know well, is more powerful than ashes, and, soot is composed of the grossest parts of the smoke. That which flies out of the chimney is the best part of all.

"In case of a want of wood wherewith to begin the fire, the fire may be lighted precisely as in the case of paring and burning. If the kiln be large, the oblong square is the best figure.—About ten feet wide, because then a man can fling the earth easily over every part. The mode they pursue in England when there is no wood, is to make a sort of building in the kiln with turfs and leave air holes at the corners of the walls, till the fire be well begun. But this is tedious work; and is in this country wholly unnecessary. Care must, however, be taken, that the fire be well lighted. The matter put in at first should be such as is of the lightest description; so that a body of earth on fire may be obtained, before it be too heavily loaded.

"The burning being completed, having got the quantity you want, let the kiln remain. The fire will continue to work, until all is ashes. If you want use the ashes sooner, open the kiln. They will be cold enough to remove in a week."

A practice has long prevailed in Europe of paring and burning soils for the purpose of improving their texture and increasing their fertility. On clay lands, and such as contain too much vegetable matter, we conceive the process might be advisable if not too expensive. Its effect on clays is to destroy the adhesive quality of the soil, as the earth burned becomes rather of a silicious texture; and at the same time the surface is much enriched by the operation. In the other case it is calculated to reduce the redundancy of vegetable matter, as well as to enrich the soil. The operation is performed in the following manner:

When the ground is in a good sward of grass let it be carefully turned over with the plough, the irons of which should be well sharpened. Let the plough run about three inches deep.—Then cross plough with a very sharp coulter, and the sward will all be cut into squares of about 10 or 12 inches. You then proceed to set these square chunks up edgeways, by leaning two together, in which situation they will soon dry.—When well dried build a part of them tip in the form of little ovens, and let this be done at the distance of about every 18 feet each way. These are all to have a little opening or door, at a common windward side, for the air to enter, and another opening above for the smoke to pass off. On some dry day when the wind is fair for blowing into the holes below place some straw or other dry rubbish into the holes and set fire to it. As soon as the fires have got fully going in each of the heaps, let the holes in the tops be stopped up, for the purpose of retaining the smoke, and keep gradually building up the heaps as the fire penetrates them, until all the chunks of earth are piled up round them; and when the heaps have fully burned and sufficiently cooled, they are to be evenly spread over the ground, and ploughed in.

In some parts of Great Britain it has been the practice to burn peat earth, in a manner very similar to that before described for burning clay, and the ashes thus obtained from the mass were used for top dressings; but we believe this practice has mostly given way to that of rotting or decomposing peat in compost, the method of which is as follows: you form the compost heap of about one half of peat, a fourth of lime, and a fourth of barn dung, and these substances are to be separately laid along in a manner most convenient to be afterwards thrown into the compost heap in their proper proportions. You commence at one end with spreading a layer of peat on the ground, say, ten feet square and four inches in depth; then a layer of lime on this and another of barn dung, each two inches thick; then another layer of peat, as before, and then the lime and barn dung, as before, until in this way the heap is raised about four feet high, and let the last layer be of peat: then commence another ten feet square along side of this, and raise it as before, till you raise it to the same height; then with another ten feet square, at the end of this mass, and so on, till the heap is completed. After the heap has stood a while, it will heat, and when the heat begins to subside, you commence again at one end of the heap and cut the whole down to the bottom, with the spade, and form a new heap, throwing the exterior parts of the heap, thus cut down, into the middle of the other. A second heating of the mass will then commence, and when that subsides, the peat will be found sufficiently decomposed, and the whole an excellent mass of manure.

In this country peaty substances are usually to be found in morasses; as the superstratum of marle, as before-mentioned; as the principal ingredient of the salt marshes contiguous to the ocean, and as the superstratum of tracts of cold lands which are covered with growths of evergreen trees.

In making composts with upland marle, before-mentioned, the proportions of the marle, with that of the lime and dung, may be similar to those just mentioned for the peat composts, or perhaps the marle may be in greater proportion. The layers of each may be as before described, but the heap only raised to such height that it may be cleft down to the bottom with the plough, then thrown together in a ridge again with this implement; and let these operations be repeated, at intervals, till the whole becomes well mixed, pulverised, and in a state of fermentation, when it is fit for use, and should be immediately applied to the soil in the manner before-mentioned.

The use of wood ashes as a manure, is well known. It is good for almost all crops, and is to be used as a top dressing. It is much more efficacious as a manure in some parts of the country than others, particularly on Long Island. It is most valuable on light dry soils, particularly those which are sandy. Soot, as a top dressing, is much more valuable than ashes, and is proper for almost all arable lands. It is most efficacious when well pulverised before its application.

The dung of fowls of every sort has much calcareous matter in it, and is very efficacious, applied as top dressings. Malt dust is good in the same way—40 bushels of it is a proper allowance to the acre.

Night shade should be mixed with earth, say, two thirds of the latter to one of the former, and in the course of a few months it forms an excellent manure. In most European cities this excrement is carefully collected, for manure, while in this country its use has been neglected.

Many liquids are furnished from every domicile, and particularly the kitchen, which, mixed with earths, and other substances, would form valuable masses of manure. The liquids to which we principally refer, are the soap-suds, dish-water, brine of meat, urine, &c.; these should all be preserved, by being absorbed in rich earthy substances, together with the contents of the hog-sty; and in this way a large heap of good manure may be made that is commonly lost for want of attention in saving these ingredients.