INDEX

Abbe, Cleveland, 298;

publishes weather bulletin, 305;

his long service in the Weather Bureau, 305

Absolute humidity, 39

Absolute zero, 62

Aërial ocean, the air a great, 7

Aëroplane, importance of developing the, 27

Africa, and monsoon winds, 107;

hottest and coldest places in, 279

Agricultural interests, benefit of Weather Bureau service to, 301, 302

Air, great ocean of, around the earth, 7;

condition of, at various levels, 7-17;

liquid, 9;

blue tint of, 10;

thinness of stratum of, that sustains life, 14;

elasticity and density of, 14;

pressure of, 15;

weight of, 15;

everything evolved from, 15-17;

effect of cold wave on the, 36, 37;

explorations of the, 18-28;

circulation of the, 55;

increasing pressure increases temperature of, 61;

difference between weight and pressure of, 77;

course of a current of, 99;

earth warmer than, next above, 180;

cools with ascent and heats with descent, 184;

height of freezing cold in free, 185;

daily range of temperature in free, 185, 186;

movement of, in valleys, 204;

mountains and movement of, 205;

proper temperature and humidity of, in habitations, 217;

water vapor in, at various temperatures, 284;

retards falling raindrops, 285;

and the formation of cloud, 287, 288

Air travel, Major Blair on, 27;

Lieut. Col. Henry on, 28

Aitken, Robert Grant, method of counting dust motes, 44, 45

Altitude, gauged by boiling point of water, 60, 61;

wind’s velocity increases with, 109-111;

man’s adjustment to life at high, 186, 187;

temperature at high, 210-212;

amelioration of disease by moderate, 248, 249, 250

Altitudes, the cold and stillness in the higher, 10, 11

American Weather Service, development of, 291-306. See also United States Weather Bureau

Ammonia, 33

Aneroid barometer, volunteer observers and the, 66;

forecasting weather with the, 74-79

Animal life, necessity of oxygen to, 35

Anti-cyclone, general cause of, 98;

general whirl of, 103;

gyration of, 108, 109;

an area of high pressure, 119

Appalachian Mountains, effects of higher elevation of, 231, 232

Argentine Republic, Christmas Day in, 274

Argon, 33

Arrows, on weather map fly with wind, 116, 118

Artificial rain making, experiments with, 288, 289

Asia, and monsoon winds, 106;

hottest and coldest places in, 279-280

Astoria, Wash., climate of, 210

Atlantic Ocean, temperatures of waters of, 177

Atmosphere, of the sun, 2;

of Jupiter, Neptune, Uranus, and Saturn, 3;

carbon dioxide in, 5;

thickness of earth’s, 6;

how it is warmed, 8;

absorption of heat rays by, 8;

water vapor in earth’s, 8;

temperature of isothermal stratum of, 11;

gases of, in mechanical not chemical union, 32;

importance of proper proportions of gases of the, 32;

table of component parts of, 33;

beneficial effects of cold wave on, 36, 37;

dust motes and illumination of the, 45;

data meager as to circulation of upper, 103, 104;

storms and cold waves great eddies in the, 118;

variations in temperature due to motion of, 163, 164;

absorption of solar rays by the, 166-168

Atmospheres, how they are formed, 1;

how maintained and how lost, 5;

earth’s four, 29-47

Atmospheric air, composition of, 29-37

Atoms, early belief in formation of all matter of, 30;

present knowledge of, 30, 31;

composition of, 31;

of various elements, 31, 32

Australia, and monsoon winds, 107;

hottest and coldest places in, 280

Bacteria, and putrefaction diminish with elevation and over seas, 10;

absence of, at high altitudes, 43;

gathered by snow, ice, and water, 43;

destroyed by sunshine, 248

Balloon, use of, in meteorological research, 19;

record of temperatures at high altitudes by, 124, 210-212

Barometer, discovered by Torricelli, 23;

aneroid, 66;

forecasting weather with the aneroid, 74-79;

table for forecasting weather by, 76;

discovery of principle of, 77-79;

effect of storms on, 79;

low at Poles, 103;

data from, in meteorological science, 292, 293

Bathing, fresh and salt water, 249

Berlin, Germany, temperature of earth at great depth at, 179;

Christmas Day in, 271

Bermuda, sub-permanent Highs and Lows in region of, 159, 251;

climate of, compared with Florida and California, 256-261;

author’s visit to, 257;

range of thermometer in Hamilton, 257;

wind velocity and humidity in, 257, 258;

charm of, 258;

location of, 258;

influence of ocean on climate of, 258, 259;

character of islands of, 259, 260;

flowers in, 260;

wind and rainfall in, 261;

meteorological statistics for, 264

Bethlehem of Judea, Christmas Day in, 268, 269

Bismuth, nucleus of atom of, 32

Blair, Major William R., on air travel, 27

Boiling point of water, 57, 58;

as a gauge for altitude, 60, 61

Bombay, India, Christmas Day in, 272

Boston, Mass., influence of ocean on summer temperature of, 194

Bowie, E. H., National Forecaster, rules for forecasting, 151-153

Brazil, high temperature in interior of, 278

Cairo, Egypt, Christmas Day in, 272

Calcutta, India, Christmas Day in, 272

California, summer temperature of coast of, 194;

wet and dry seasonal records in big trees of, 236, 237;

climate of Bermuda compared with that of, 256-261

Calms, belt of, at equator, 99

Calorie. See Gram-calorie

Cape Town, South Africa, Christmas Day in, 274

Carbon, nucleus of atom of, 31

Carbon dioxide, in atmosphere of earth, 5;

one of earth’s atmospheres, 29;

functions of, 35-37;

seasonal proportions of, in air, 35;

proportions of, according to locality, 35;

injurious proportion of, 35, 36;

reaches maximum at night over land, 36;

dissolved in sea water, 36;

maximum at midday over oceans, 36;

density of, 36

Carbonic acid gas. See Carbon Dioxide

Carnegie Foundation, investigation of big trees in California, 236, 237

Caspian Sea, waters of, have receded, 235;

again advancing, 235, 236

Centers of Action, 101;

permanent Highs and Lows in Pacific Ocean are great, 158;

influence of certain, on climate, 192-194

Centigrade scale, compared with Fahrenheit, 67, 68

Central America, changes of climate in, 238

Change of climate, mistaken ideas of, 225-230;

importance of, to sub-arid West, 229;

in period of authentic history, 233, 234;

in United States, 235;

simultaneous in Europe and America, 237;

east and west, opposite in character from north and south, 237, 238;

in Central America, 238;

in middle latitudes, 239;

in prehistoric times, 239;

as recorded by geology, 239;

shown by fossil remains, 239;

and civilization, 240;

author’s views on, 242, 243

Chautauqua lectures, author’s views on change in climate in, 242, 243

Chemical rays, a manifestation of solar energy, 49;

of light, 52

China, Christmas Day in, 272, 273

China Sea, and monsoon winds, 106

Chinook winds, 107

Christmas in many climes, 266-275

Circulation of air, 55;

general, of wind, 98-111

Cirrus clouds, 288

Civilization, influence of climate on, 213-224;

mistaken idea of change of climate and, 229;

must migrate with shifting of climatic belts, 240

Cleveland, President Grover, appoints Prof. Moore chief of Weather Bureau, 306

Climate, 161-187;

difference between weather and, 161;

changes in, 161;

how it is modified and controlled, 188-212;

its influence on civilization, 213-224;

has our, changed?, 225-244;

influence of forests on, 240-244;

controlling factors of American, 243, 244;

how to find the, you seek, 249-252;

of Cuba, 252, 253;

of Porto Rico, 253, 254;

of the Hawaiian Islands, 254, 255;

of the Philippines, 255, 256;

of Bermuda compared with Florida and California, 256-261

Climates for health and pleasure, 245-281

Climatic conditions, optimum of, favorable to man, 218, 219

Cloud, temperature as affected by, 172;

formation and composition of, 287, 288;

difference between mist, rain, fog, and, 288;

fundamental formations of, 288;

characteristics of the, formations, 288;

fog is, at a low level, 288

Cold, contraction of air by, 15;

development of man favored by, climate, 224;

severest: in North America, 277, 278;

in South America, 278;

in Europe, 279;

in Asia, 280

Coldest and hottest places in the world, 275-281

Cold storage, efficient underground, 183, 184

Cold wave, scavenger of the air, 36, 37;

beneficial effects of, 37;

great eddies in atmosphere, 118;

and speed of storm movement, 123-126;

formation of, 124;

movement of, 125, 126;

detecting approach of, 125;

limitations on extent of, 126;

warnings of, by Bureau, 126, 127;

definition of, 127, 128;

maps showing zones of, 127, 128;

number of, 128, 129;

tempered by Great Lakes, 129, 130;

tempered by heat of large cities, 130, 131;

influenced by Rocky Mountain Divide, 131;

Weather Bureau warnings of, 301, 302

Colorado Desert, Cal., extreme heat in, 277

Columbus, Christopher, and the trade winds, 102

Combustion, rapid in liquid air, 9;

nitrogen will not support, 33;

and oxygen, 34

Commerce, benefits of Weather Bureau service to, 301, 302

Condensation, and variations in temperature, 163, 164, 282-290

Congelation, 174

Constantinople, Turkey, Christmas Day in, 271

Continents, circulation between oceans and, 105;

their influence on climate, 192-198;

characteristics of temperature of interior of, 194, 195

Contour of land, and frost, 86-97

Convection, and heat, 54, 55

Copper, nucleus of atom of, 32

Coronas, 141

Cox, Prof. J. H., and observations on frost, 93, 94

Cranberry bogs, and frost, 93-95

Crime, influence of weather conditions on, 215

Cuba, climate of, 252, 253

Cultivation of land surface, and frost, 93-95

Cumulus clouds, 288

Cushing, comparison of temperatures by, 196, 197, 215

Cyclone, general cause of, 98;

general whirl of, 103;

gyration of, 107-109;

the disk of air constituting a, 119;

an area of low pressure, 119;

action of the air in and around the, 120;

movement of the, 120;

general extent of, 141;

destructive force of, 142

Cyclones, localities in which, are formed, 156, 157

Dawson, Canada, annual range of temperature at, 169

Death rate, excessive humidity increases, 216, 217

Death Valley, Cal., intense heat in, 275-277;

area and forbidding character of, 276;

temperature records taken in, 276, 277

Deflection, due to earth’s rotation, 107

Density of earth’s atmosphere at different levels, 6

“Descriptive Meteorology,” 141;

reasons for change of opinion on change of climate expressed in, 233

Desert of Sahara, Africa, intense heat in, 279

Dew point, 38;

and frost, 89, 90

Diathermancy, 56, 124

Dirigible balloon, as competitor of railroad, 19;

importance of developing the, 27

Disease, elevation diminishes bacteria of, 10;

amelioration of, by sunshine, 248

Drainage, influence on frost, 94

Droughts, the breaking of, 136

Dunwoody, Brig. Gen. H. H. C., expert forecaster and chief of Weather Bureau, 306

Dust, in the atmosphere, 33

Dust motes, absence of, at higher altitudes, 9;

interference of sun’s rays by, 10;

source of, 43, 44;

vary according to locality, 44;

counting of, 44, 45;

and diffusion of light, 45, 46;

and twilight, 46, 47

Eads Bridge, St. Louis, freak of tornado and the, 147

Earth, early condition of, 1;

death of, due to lack of heat from sun, 3, 4;

early condition of atmosphere of, 5;

transmission of sun’s rays to, 7, 8;

water vapor in atmosphere of, 8;

four atmospheres of the, 29-47;

comparison of heat of sun and of, 48;

circulation of winds and rotation of, 98-111;

deflection of winds due to rotation of, 107-109;

conditions if axis of, were vertical, 164;

variations of heat of morning, midday, and evening, 166;

change of seasons and the, 166;

percentage of solar rays reaching the, 166-168;

lag of temperatures of the, 168;

kept from freezing by water vapor, 170;

how the, cools at night, 171, 172;

great heat of interior of the, 178, 179;

a poor reflector, conductor, and radiator, 179;

temperatures at various depths in the, 179;

warmer than air next above, 180;

conditions if, were all land, 188-190;

if axis of, were perpendicular to plane of orbit, 188, 189;

conditions if, were all water, 190-192;

the real, of land, water, and inclined axis, 192

Eclipse, study of sun’s atmosphere during, 2

Efficiency, weather conditions and human, 216;

maximum and minimum periods of human, 217, 218

Electricity, and atoms, 31;

a manifestation of solar energy, 49

Electron, nucleus of all atoms, 31

Elements, nuclei of atoms of various, 31, 32

England, second nation to establish weather service, 297

Equator, circulation of wind and temperature at, 99;

belt of calms at, 99

Equatorial currents, 202, 203

Equinoctial storm, 140

Equinox, significance of, 140

Equinoxes (Fig. 21), 163

Espy, James P., his theory of continuation of storms, 156, 296

Ether, in outer space, 7;

transmission of sun’s rays by, 7, 8;

interstellar space filled with, 48;

man’s ignorance of structure of, 48;

transmission of solar energy through, 49

Eurasia, cooling of continent of, in winter, 106;

extremes of temperature in continent of, 195-197

Europe, sections of, where climatic conditions are best, 245;

hottest and coldest places in, 279

Evaporation, 58, 59;

cooling effects of, 74;

and frost, 92;

lowers temperature of wet soil, 180

Fahrenheit Scale, compared with Centigrade, 67, 68

Floods, influence of forests on, 240-244;

flow of, not restricted by forests, 244

Florida, climate of Bermuda compared with that of, 256-261

Fog, formation of, 92, 288;

and frost, 92;

temperature as affected by, 172

Föhn winds, 107

Forecasting, general rules for, 149-153;

importance of use of weather map in, 149;

the temperature by amateurs, 149, 151;

expectations of future, 303, 304;

fake, 304

Forests, exaggerated idea of influence of, on climate, 198, 200;

their influence on climate and floods, 240-244;

the author’s opinion on, 241;

as conservers of rainfall, 241;

mistaken idea of value of, as conservers, 243;

need of protection of, 243;

restrict flow of moderate rainfall but not floods, 244

Fossil remains, as evidence of changes of climate, 239

France, third nation to establish weather service, 297

Franklin, Benjamin, his study and theory of storm movements, 293-296

Freezing, of fresh and salt water, 173-175;

height of, cold in free air, 185

Frost, 85-97;

causes of formation of, 85;

light, heavy and killing, 86;

dew point in relation to, 89, 90;

black, 90;

locality and immunity from, 90, 91;

conditions conducive to, 91;

Weather Bureau observations on, 91, 92;

evaporation and, 92;

cultivation of land surface and, 93-95;

effect of sand covering on, 94, 95;

dates of killing, spring and fall, 96, 97, 287

Fuel, proper humidity and conservation of, 73, 74

Galileo, and the thermometer, 23, 292, 293

Gases of the atmosphere, in mechanical not chemical union, 32;

importance of proper proportions of, 32

Geology, evidence of changes of climate given by, 239

Germs, in the atmosphere, 33

Glacial periods, 239

Glaciers, movement of, 60;

recession and advancement of, 239

Glashier, English meteorologist, balloon ascension by, 20

Gold, nucleus of atom of, 32

Gram-calorie, unit of heat, 51

Great Ice Cap, possible return of, 240

Great Lakes, temper severity of cold waves, 129, 130;

benefit of Weather Bureau service to mariners on the, 302

Greely, Gen. A. W., chief of Weather Service, 306

Gulf Stream, West Indian hurricanes generally follow the, 133, 201;

influence of, on climate, 202, 203;

source and course of, 202, 203;

individuality of the, 203;

has no effect on climate of Bermuda, 258, 259

Gyration, due to earth’s rotation, 108, 109

Hail, formation of, 287;

and thunderstorms, 287;

attempted prevention of, 290

Hailstones, foreign matter in, 284;

formation and size of, 287

Halos, cause and nature of, 140, 141;

lunar, 141

Harrington, Prof. Mark W., first chief of new civil Weather Bureau, 306

Havana, Cuba, climate of, 253

Hawaiian Islands, climate of the, 254, 255

Haze, nature and characteristics of, 282

Hazen, Brig. Gen. William B., chief of Weather Service, 306

Health, north winds conducive, south winds detrimental to, 26;

temperature in its relation to, 216;

semi-annual maximum and minimum periods of, 217, 218

Health seeker, all-the-year climate for the, 252

Heat, expansion of air by, 15;

possibility of using earth’s interior, 18;

how it reaches the earth, 46;

source of, 49;

of sun and earth compared, 48;

manifestation and transmission of, 48, 49, 51;

difference between temperature and, 49, 50;

commercial and scientific unit of, 50, 51;

difference between waves of light, sound, and, 51;

conduction of, 54;

radiation of, 54;

convection of, 54, 55;

absorption of, 55, 56;

specific, 56;

latent, 56-58;

differing temperatures with same solar, 162-166;

great capacity of water for, 200, 201;

ocean currents distributors of, 201, 202;

extreme, in Death Valley and Colorado Desert, 275-277;

in South America, 278;

in Africa, 279;

in Europe, 279;

in Asia, 279, 280;

in Australia, 280

Heat rays, absorption of sun’s, 8

Heat waves, difference between light, sound, and, 51;

length of, 51

Helium, in earth’s atmosphere, 5, 6;

importance of manufacture of, 19;

nucleus of atom of, 31

Henry, Prof. Joseph, compiles first weather map, 296

Hersey, Lieut. Col. Henry B., on dirigibles and airplanes, 28

High-pressure belts, rains of the, 105

Highs, initiation of, 101;

placing of, on weather map, 115, 116;

characteristics of, 124;

conditions and action of air of, 131-133;

periodicity of, 132;

and warm waves, 136;

influence of certain, on climate, 192-194

Himalaya Mountains, and monsoon winds, 106, 206;

and climate of Asia, 206;

rainfall in the, 206

Holland, establishes first weather service, 297

Holy Land, formerly an abundance of water in, 235

Honolulu, Hawaii, climate of, 254

Hottest and coldest places in the world, 275-281

Human energy, climate and the distribution of, 220

Humboldt, Baron von, on civilization and climate, 214

Humidifiers, 72

Humidity, percentage expression of relative, 38, 39;

absolute, 39, 68-74;

tables of relative, 69-71;

importance of proper, in living quarters, 72;

diseases due to lack of, 73;

and conservation of fuel, 73, 74;

excessive, harmful to man, 216, 217;

proper percentage of, 217

Huntington, Ellsworth, comparison of temperatures by, 196, 197, 215;

on human energy, 217, 218;

on examination of big trees in California, 236, 237

Hurricane, West Indian, 133, 134;

the Galveston, 134;

nature and development of, 134, 135;

exposure of Atlantic coast to effects of, 135, 136

Hurricanes, general extent of, 141

Hydrogen, in earth’s atmosphere, 5, 6;

nucleus of atom of, 31;

and oxygen combined to form water, 32;

density of, 39;

combustible properties of, 39;

sources of supply of, 39, 40

Hygrometer, for measuring water vapor, 39

Ice, and bacteria, 43;

formation of, 43;

specific heat of, 56;

latent heat of melting, 57;

melting of, under pressure, 60

Ice ages, 239

Ice Cap, possible return of Great, 240

Iceland, sub-permanent Highs and Lows in region of, 159

Inclosed seas, temperature of waters of, 176-178;

latitude, season and depth change temperature of, 177, 178

Indian Ocean, and monsoon winds, 106, 107;

temperature of waters of, 176

Industry, benefits of Weather Bureau service to, 301, 302

Instrument shelter, 66-68

Instruments, in meteorological stations, 63;

for voluntary observer, 66-79

Invisible light, 52, 53

Iron, nucleus of atom of, 32

Isobars, on weather map, 115

Isothermal lines, ocean currents and changes in, 201, 202

Isothermal stratum, height of, 11;

temperature of, 11, 12, 211

Jacksonville, Fla., meteorological statistics for, 263

Japan, Christmas Day in, 273

Jefferson, Thomas, on the changing climate, 227;

records of readings of thermometer by, 232;

barometrical records of, 233;

loss of his barometer, 233;

weather observations by, 296

Jupiter, atmosphere of, 3;

and heat from sun, 3

Justice, weather records serve ends of, 79-83

Kansas City, Mo., climate of, 210

Kelvin, Lord, on the size of molecule of water, 30

Kites, in meteorological research, 19;

use of, by Weather Bureau, 22;

rectangular form of, 22;

observations from, 64;

construction and flying of, 64-66

Krakatoa, effects of eruption of, 43, 44

Krypton, 33

Lake Owens, Cal., waters of, have receded, 235

Lake Superior, temperature of waters of, 178

Lakes, influence of, on climate, 199, 200

Lapham, Dr. I. A., 298;

urges establishment of weather service, 305

Latent heat, 56-58

Latitude, its relation to health, strength, and efficiency of man, 218

Lead, nucleus of atom of, 32

Life, the atmosphere in relation to beginnings of, 2, 3;

thinness of stratum of air that sustains, 14;

how to prolong, 246;

in the open air and sunshine, 247-249

Light, slight refraction of, in higher altitudes, 9;

diffused by dust motes, 45;

source of, 49;

how it reaches the earth, 49;

a manifestation of solar energy, 49;

invisible, 52, 53;

and transparency, 56;

speed of, 162;

from the stars, 162

Light waves, difference between heat, sound, and, 51;

length of, 51;

velocity of, 51, 52;

and invisible light, 52, 53

Lining, Dr. John, temperature records kept by, 293

Liquid air, 9

Local forecasting, rules for making, 153-155

Lofoten Islands, temperatures recorded in the, 196

London, England, Christmas Day in, 269, 270

Loomis, Elias, 296

Los Angeles, Cal., climate of, 210;

meteorological statistics for, 262

Lows, the initiation of, 101;

placing of, on the weather map, 115, 116;

characteristics of, 124;

their influence on cold waves, 126;

conditions and action of air of, 131-133;

periodicity of, 132;

and warm waves, 136;

V-shaped, 137;

influence of certain, on climate, 192-194

Lunar halos, 141

Macready, Lieut. John A., altitude record of, 20

Mammoth Cave, temperature of, 181

Man, climate and the dominant races of, 213-224;

conditions best suited to health, strength, and efficiency of, 215, 216;

excessive humidity harmful to, 216, 217;

semi-annual maximum and minimum periods of efficiency of, 217, 218

Manila, P. I., climate of, 255

Maritime interests, benefits of Weather Bureau service to, 300-303

Marvin, Prof. Charles F., present chief of Weather Bureau, 306

Matter, early belief as to construction of all, 30;

present knowledge of nature of, 31;

determination of differences in, 31;

forms of simple, 31

Maury, Matthew F., 298

Mazatlan, Mexico, climate of, 209

Mediterranean Sea, temperatures of waters of, 177

Melbourne, Australia, Christmas Day in, 275

Mental activities, and weather conditions, 215, 216

Mercury, density of, compared to air, 15;

nucleus of atom of, 32

Mesopotamia, former fertility of, 234, 235

Meteorological conditions best suited to efficiency of man, 216

Meteorological science, in America, 291-306. See also United States Weather Bureau

Meteorological station, instruments installed in, 63

Meteorological statistics, tables of: for Los Angeles, Cal., 262;

for Miami, Fla., 262;

for Jacksonville, Fla., 263;

for San Diego, Cal., 263;

for Tampa, Fla., 264;

for Bermuda, 264

Meteorologists, association of aviator with, in map making, 23

Meteors, cause of luminosity of, 6

Meyer, Gen. Albert J., inaugurates tentative weather service, 305

Mexico City, climate of, 209, 210

Miami, Fla., temperature and rainfall at, 261;

meteorological statistics for, 262

Microbes of the air, 41-43;

functions of the useful varieties of, 41, 42;

and locality, 42;

and crowded habitations, 42;

effect of sunshine on, 42, 43;

dust-free air free of, 44

Milwaukee, Wis., rules for forecasting at, 153-155

Mind, effects of weather conditions on, 215

Mock moon, 141

Mock sun, 141

Molds, destroyed by sunshine, 248

Molecule, infinitesimal size of, of air and of water, 29, 30;

of raindrop, 282, 283

Molecules, space between, of gases, 29

Monsoon winds, 106, 107

Moon, a dead planet, 4;

absence of atmosphere around, 4, 5;

temperature of dark side of, 5;

has no influence on weather, 138-140;

and the tides of the ocean, 139;

no influence on crops, 140;

and halos, 141;

mock, 141

Moore, Prof. Willis L., experience at Chautauqua lectures, 19;

prediction of transoceanic flight by airplane, 19, 20;

experiments with small gas balloons, 21;

appointed chief of Weather Bureau, 306;

long service as chief, 306;

removal of, 306

Moscow, Russia, Christmas Day in, 273

Mountain air, beneficial effects of, 249, 250

Mountains, why peaks of, are cold, 8, 171;

effect of, on climate, 204-206;

and rain and snow, 205, 206

Mount Weather, Va., research work at, 21, 22;

value of work at, in World War, 24, 25;

altitude record of temperature at, 211, 212

Munich, Bavaria, record of earth’s temperatures at, 168

Neon, 33

Neptune, atmosphere of, 3;

and heat from sun, 3

New Bedford, Mass., daily weather records for long period at, 228

New York, N. Y., influence of ocean on summer temperature of, 194

Nimbus clouds, 288

Nitric acid, 33

Nitrogen, in atmosphere of earth, 8;

one of earth’s atmospheres, 29;

nucleus of atom of, 31;

debilitating effects of, 32;

functions of, 33;

absence of, above fifty miles, 212

North America, and monsoon winds, 107;

hottest and coldest places in, 275-278

“Northwester”, cause of, 117

Observations, great number and vast area covered by Weather Bureau, 298. See also Weather Observations

Ocean, intense cold at bottom of, 175, 176;

temperature of inclosed seas differ from those of, 176, 177;

temperatures of Atlantic, 177;

latitude, season and depth changes temperatures of, 177, 178;

direction of wind affects shore temperature of, 178;

influence of, on climate, 192-198;

climate of Bermuda controlled by, 258, 259

Ocean currents, influence of, on climate, 200-202;

circulation of, follows winds, 200-202;

great distributors of heat, 201, 202

Oceans, circulation between continents and, 105

“Oldest Inhabitant”, hallucinations of, as to weather, 225-228

Open air, life in the, 247-249

Organic matter, in atmosphere, 33

Oxygen, in atmosphere of earth, 8;

and liquid air, 9;

one of earth’s atmospheres, 29;

nucleus of atom of, 31;

stimulating effect of, 32;

union of, with hydrogen to constitute water, 32;

functions of, 33-35;

proportion of, in free air, 34;

in places with restricted ventilation, 34;

necessary to life, 35;

causes of decrease of, 37;

ozone is highly electrified, 40;

absence of, above thirty miles, 212

Ozone, 33;

source of, 40;

characteristics of, 40;

effects of, 40, 41;

variation of, due to seasons and locality, 41;

effects of winds on, 41

Paris, France, Christmas Day in, 270

Permanent Highs and Lows in the Pacific, great Centers of Action, 158;

interference with storms from Orient by, 158

Petrograd, Russia, Christmas Day in, 273

Philippine Islands, climate of the, 255, 256

Pittsburgh, Pa., climate of, 210

Planets, quicker cooling of the small, 2;

lifeless, 2, 3

Plant life, necessity of oxygen to, 35;

carbon dioxide and, 35

Poles, temperature and circulation of wind at the, 99;

barometer low at, 103;

not the coldest points in the world, 280

Population, storm tracks and, 214-223

Porto Rico, climate of, 253, 254

Precipitation, factors controlling, of a region, 230

Pressure, difference between, and weight of air, 77;

belt of high, at latitudes 30° north and south, 99, 101;

indicated on weather map by Highs and Lows, 115, 116

“Principles of Human Geography”, 196, 215;

quoted, 219, 220, 236, 237

Putrefaction, bacteria of, diminish with elevation, 10

Races of Man, climate and the dominant, 213-224

Radiation, earth, 8;

of heat, 54;

and frost, 85-97;

and circulation of wind, 98;

earth and air cooled by, 171;

and temperature of valleys, 203, 204

Radium, nucleus of atom of, 32

Raindrops, size and composition of, 282;

falling or evaporation of, 283;

where, are formed, 283;

what causes, 284;

cannot form at great altitudes, 284;

velocity of falling, 284, 285;

air retards falling, 285

Rainfall, cause of heavy, in tropics, 104, 105;

monsoon winds and heavy, 106;

in Himalaya Mountains, 206;

average monthly, in North America and in the Old World, 207-210;

forests as conservers of, 241;

in Hawaiian Islands, 255;

instantaneous precipitation of all water vapor and, 285;

causes of heavy, 285

Rain making, artificial, 288, 289

Rain water, pure when condensed, 284;

collects impurities in falling, 284

Redfield, 296

Red Sea, temperatures of waters of, 176

Reflection, water rejects heat by, 172

Refrigerator, an economical, 59

Relative humidity, tables of, 69-71

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Christmas Day in, 274

Rivers, influence of, on climate, 199, 200

Rocky Mountains, influence on cold waves by the, 131;

effects of reduction in height of, 230-232;

records inscribed by waters on, 234, 235

Rome, Italy, Christmas Day in, 272

Rotation of earth, deflection caused by, 107-109

Russia, Christmas Day in, 273

St. Louis, Mo., tornado of 1896 in, 146-148

St. Paul, Minn., climate of, 210

Salt, in atmosphere, 33

Samoa, annual range of temperature in, 169

Sand, as a preventive of frost, 94, 95

San Diego, Cal., lowest temperature recorded at, 129;

meteorological statistics for, 263

Sanitaria, 250

San Juan, Porto Rico, climate of, 253, 254

Santiago, Chili, Christmas Day in, 274

Saturation, point of, 38;

dew point and, 38;

varies according to temperature of air, 38, 39

Saturn, atmosphere of, 3;

and heat from sun, 3

Schroeder, Major R. W., 11;

altitude record of, 20;

experience of, 20

Scientific American, The, on statistics of climate, 265, 266

Sea air, beneficial effects of, 249

Seasons, cause of change of, 166-168;

reversal of, in the northern and southern hemispheres, 169;

conditions resulting in no, 188, 190;

forces that influence and control the, 188-190

Silver, nucleus of atom of, 32;

best conductor of heat among the metals, 54

Sleet, snow and the formation of, 286, 287

Smith, Robert Angus, on carbon dioxide, 34, 36

Smithson, James, 297

Smithsonian Institution, 296;

activities in practical meteorology, 297

Snow, water vapor in congealed form, 285;

beauty and variety of crystals of, 286;

and the formation of sleet, 286, 287

Solar energy, transmission of, through the ether, 49

Solids, heat expands most, 59

Solstices (Figs. 22 and 23), summer and winter, 164; (Fig. 26), 167

Sound waves, difference between heat, light, and, 51;

length of, 51;

velocity of, 51, 52

South America, and monsoon winds, 107;

hottest and coldest places in, 278

Space, ether in outer, 7, 48;

temperature of outer, 9;

darkness of outer, 9;

the proof of lack of light in, 9, 10;

transmission of heat through, 48;

absence of atmosphere in, 48

Stars, size of, and distance from earth, 162

Statistics, tables of meteorological, 262-264;

The Scientific American on climate, 265, 266

Steel, burns in liquid air, 9

Storm, in winter of 1893, 117-123;

Franklin’s study and theory of, movements, 293-296;

abnormal movement of some, centers, 300

Storms, terrible nature of, in early history of creation, 1;

general rules for forecasting, 75-79;

general action of, 115;

great eddies in atmosphere, 118;

movement of, 118, 119;

cold waves as affecting speed of, 123-126;

locality of origin of majority of our, 132;

general movement of, 133;

equinoctial, 140;

tornadoes, 141-148;

and their relation to density of population, 220-223;

ten-year record of, 221, 222;

area and movement of cyclonic, 231;

Weather Bureau’s study of types of, 299, 300;

peculiar action of barometer in some types of, 299, 300;

Weather Bureau detects inception of, 302;

frequency of, 304

Storm tracks, civilization follows the, 213-224

Stratus clouds, 288

Strength, temperature and its relation to physical, 216

Sub-permanent Highs and Lows, 158;

of the Pacific a bar to storms from the Orient, 158;

effect of change of position of, 158-160;

in the region of Iceland and Bermuda, 159

Sulphates, in atmosphere, 33

Sulphur, nucleus of atom of, 31, 32

Summer, difference in length of, in northern and southern hemispheres, 169

Summer resort, an aërial, 13, 14

Summer temperature gradients in isothermal stratum, 12

Sun, atmosphere of the, 2;

conditions for beginning of life on the, 2, 3;

will be no life on, 3;

effect on earth of cooling of the, 4;

transmission of rays of, by the ether, 7, 8;

absorption by oxygen, nitrogen, and water vapor of rays of, 8;

and twilight, 46, 47;

comparison of heat of earth and of, 48;

mock, 141;

only source of appreciable heat, 162;

earth’s orbit around, 165;

cause of variation in heat of, reaching earth, 166;

absorption by atmosphere of rays of, 166

Sunshine, life in the open air and, 247-249;

destroys molds, 248

Supra-red rays, remedial powers of, 248

Tampa, Fla., temperature and rainfall at, 261;

meteorological statistics for, 264

Telescope, agitations of sun’s atmosphere revealed by, 2

Temperate zone, highest type of civilization found in the, 213-224

Temperature, of the isothermal stratum, 11, 12;

and water vapor, 37, 38;

difference between heat and, 49, 50;

proper method of taking, 63;

and frost, 85-97;

and circulation of wind, 98-111;

red lines on map indicate similarity of, 122, 123;

record of, by balloons at high altitudes, 124;

how amateurs may forecast, 151;

with same solar heat differing, 162-166;

causes of variations in, 163;

of oceans, lakes, and rivers, 172, 173;

extremely low, of ocean bottoms, 175, 176;

of water changes with latitude, season and depth, 177;

of earth at depth of 3490 feet, 179;

daily range of, in free air, 185, 186;

of interior of continents, 194;

of coastal regions influenced by ocean in summer, 194;

lowest recorded, at Weather Bureau, 195;

highest, July, 195;

average maximum and minimum, recorded by Weather Bureau, 195;

extremes of, in Eurasian continent, 195-197;

questionable effect of Gulf Stream on, 203;

influence of valleys on, 203, 204;

extremes of, on mountains, 204, 205;

average monthly, in North America and the Old World, 207-210;

at high altitudes, 210-212;

effects of changes of, on man, 215;

in its relation to health, strength, and efficiency, 215, 216;

and mental activity, 216;

proper percentage of humidity and, 217;

the optimum of, for energy, 218, 219;

regions of favorable, the summer, 250;

author’s record of, in Bermuda, 257

Temperature inversion, 171

Temperatures, lag of earth’s, 168;

annual range in air, 168, 169;

highest and lowest:

in North America, 275-278;

in South America, 278;

in Africa, 279;

in Europe, 279;

in Asia, 279, 280;

in Australia, 280

Thermometer, Galileo’s discovery of principles of, 23;

principles and discovery of, 62, 63;

comparison of Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales of, 67, 68;

data from, and meteorological science, 293

Thomson, Sir William. See Lord Kelvin

Thorium, nucleus of atom of, 32

Thunderstorms, effect of, on Lows, 132;

cause, extent and movement of, 137;

frequency of, 138;

Highs and, 138;

temperature and, 138;

Lows and, 138;

locale of, 138;

and the formation of hail, 287

Tornadoes, 141-148;

extent of, 141, 142;

velocity and destructive force of, 142;

locale of, 142;

frequency of, 142;

rate of movement and general direction of, 142;

warnings of coming of, 142;

seeking safety during, 142, 143;

an American type of storm, 143;

presence of water vapor necessary to cause, 144;

use of weather map in forecasting, 144, 145;

not increasing, 145;

difficulty of forecasting, 146, 147;

freaks of, 147, 148

Toronto, Canada, climate of, 210

Torricelli, and the barometer, 23, 292, 293

Trade winds, 101, 102

Transparency, 56

Tropical zone, cause of torrential rains in the, 100

Tropics, rain winds of the, 104, 105

Tubercle bacillus, destroyed by sunshine, 248

Twilight, and dust motes, 46, 47

Ultra-violet Rays, remedial powers of, 248

Underground habitations, plan for unique, 180-184

United States, where climatic conditions are best in the, 245;

fourth nation to establish weather service, 297

United States Weather Bureau, experiments with small gas balloons, 21;

observations with kites by, 21, 22;

storm warnings by, 24;

and voluntary observers, 66;

method of taking readings by, 66-79;

ends of justice served by records of, 79-83;

and prevention of frost, 95-97;

maps prepared by, 112-160;

timely warnings by, 117;

when warnings are displayed by, 122;

warnings of cold waves by, 126, 127;

definition of “cold wave” by, 127, 128;

and tornado warnings, 146, 147;

on forecasting, 151-153;

rules for forecasting at Milwaukee, Wis., 153-155;

extent of area under observation by, 155-158;

comparison of crime and records of, 215;

rainfall records by, 237, 241;

record of floods by, 241;

and fake prevention, of hail, 290;

stations and observations of the, 291, 292;

fourth national weather service established, 297;

the result of efforts by American scientists, 298;

vast area under daily observation by, 298;

number of observations twice daily by, 298;

first work of, regarded as experimental, 299;

advance in efficiency of, 299;

growing faith in work of, 299;

its study of types of storms, 299, 300;

competitive examinations held by, 300;

warnings by, now accepted, 300;

warnings of West Indian hurricanes by, 300;

value of property saved through warnings of, 301;

utility of warnings of, 301, 302;

and warnings to mariners on Great Lakes, 302;

inception of storms detected by, 302;

expectations of future forecasting by, 303, 304;

first tentative, established, 305

Uranium, nucleus of atom of, 32

Uranus, atmosphere of, 3;

and heat from sun, 3

Valleys, influence of, on temperature, 203, 204

Vaporization, latent heat of, 58, 59

Vegetation, oxygen and, 36;

carbon dioxide and, 36;

and frost, 85-97

Velocity increased by altitude, wind’s, 109-111

Ventilation, detrimental effects of poor, 34;

need of, in closed or low places, 36;

in places of habitation, 37;

and underground apartments, 182, 183

Vera Cruz, Mexico, climate of, 209

Verkhoyansk, Siberia, extremes of temperature at, 196, 197;

Christmas Day in, 273

Vienna, Austria, Christmas Day in, 271

V-shaped Lows. See Lows

Warm waves, cause and duration of, 136, 137

Washington Monument, pressure of air at top of, 79

Water, density of, compared to air, 15;

infinitesimal size of molecule of, 30;

union of hydrogen and oxygen to constitute, 32;

and bacteria, 43;

commercial and scientific unit of heat and, 50, 51;

boiling point of, 58;

boiling point of, as gauge for altitude, 60, 61;

frost as affected by body of, 90, 91;

rejects heat by reflection, 172;

solar rays penetrate, 173;

temperatures of large bodies of, 173;

difference in freezing temperature of fresh and salt, 173;

salt, better conductor of heat, 173;

a wonderful phenomenon of fresh, 173-175;

low temperature of, of ocean bottoms, 175, 176;

temperature of, of inclosed seas and oceans, 176, 177;

latitude, season and depth change temperature of, 177, 178;

direction of wind affects shore temperature of, 178;

has great capacity for heat, 200, 201

Water vapor, and earth’s atmosphere, 8;

absorption of sun’s rays by, 8;

level of, 8;

one of earth’s atmospheres, 29;

density of, 37;

varies according to locality, 37, 38;

temperature and, 38;

precipitation of, 38, 231;

transformations of, 38;

and the dew point, 38;

saturation point and temperature, 38;

measured by hygrometer, 39;

and frost, 85-97;

protects earth from freezing, 170;

changes in sun’s rays effected by, 170;

a separate atmosphere, 231;

and raindrops, 284;

rainfall and instantaneous precipitation of all, 285;

and snow, 285-287;

and fog, 288

Waves, difference between light, heat and sound, 51;

length of different, of solar energy, 51;

velocity of, 51, 52

Weather, forecasting, with aneroid barometer, 74-79;

moon has no influence on, 138-140;

general rules for forecasting, 149-153;

difference between climate and, 161;

changes daily, 161;

expectations of future forecasting of, 303, 304.

See also United States Weather Bureau

“Weather Forecasting in the United States”, 151

Weather map, value of aviator in compiling, 23, 112-160;

supplied by Weather Bureau, 112;

value of, 112, 113;

advantage of familiarity with, 113, 114;

method of compiling, 114;

collection of data for, 114, 115;

marking isobars on, 115;

Highs and Lows of, 115, 116;

indication of storm action on, 115;

arrows fly with wind on, 116, 117;

winter storm of 1893 on, 117-123;

temperature readings on, 119;

indication of storm center on, 121;

meaning of red lines on, 122, 123;

forecasting tornadoes by use of, 144, 145;

general rules for forecasting and the, 149-153;

Prof. Henry compiles first, 296.

See also United States Weather Bureau

Weather observers, voluntary, 66-79

Weather observations, from kites, 64;

method of taking, 66-79;

extent of area under, 155;

practice of early meteorologists in, 155, 156;

advantages enjoyed by the Weather Bureau in, 156-158.

See also United States Weather Bureau

Weather records, serve ends of justice, 79-83. See also United States Weather Bureau

Weight, difference between, and pressure of air, 77

Wendham, first to use multiple plane kites, 64

West Indian Hurricane. See Hurricane

Wheeling, W. Va., temperature of earth at depth of 3490 feet at, 179

Wilson, President Woodrow, removes Prof. Moore from office of chief of Weather Bureau, 306

Wind, and pressure of the globe, 98-111;

why it blows, 116;

cause of variation in velocity of, 116-117

Winds, trade, 101, 102;

of middle latitudes, 102, 103;

rain, of tropics, 104, 105;

rain in the region of west, 105;

variations in coastal, 106;

monsoon, 106, 107;

Föhn, 107;

Chinook, 107;

deflected by earth’s rotation, 107-109;

velocity of, as affected by altitude, 109-111;

West Indian hurricane, 133, 134;

of Galveston hurricane, 134;

of tornadoes, 141-148;

of latitudes 30° north and south, 194

Winter resorts, with favorable climate, 251

Winter storm of 1893, 117-123

Winter temperature gradients in isothermal stratum, 12

Xenon, 33

Yakutsk, Siberia, annual range of temperature at, 169

Zero, absolute, 62