Volume 49 / Part 1 — CHAPTER IVToC

CHAPTER IVToC

Occupations of Wage-earners

I. AN HISTORICAL VIEW OF OCCUPATIONS

In the New Amsterdam Colony as early as 1628, slaves were sought as a source of labor. These slaves were employed mainly in farm labor. In that year the Dutch West India Company agreed to furnish slaves to the colonists and the Company's largest farm was "cultivated by the blacks."[49] Individuals were at liberty to import slaves for the same purpose.[50] Both slaves and freedmen were used as stevedores and deckhands for the Company's vessels. The slaves were also used in building and repairing the public highways and in the repairing of Fort Amsterdam.[51] In 1680, mention is made of Negroes being used in housebuilding.[52] About the same time Negro slaves were carrying hod for wages, and in 1699 it was said that about the only servants (probably meaning domestic servants) in the Province of New York were Negroes. Freed Negroes were indentured or hired for similar service.[53]

Negroes were mustered into the Colonial army as early as 1698, and in the battle of Lake George in 1755, the "blacks behaved better than the whites."[54]

Under the Dutch government enfranchised and slave Negroes were allowed to acquire and hold land. Some took advantage of this privilege. But with English possession of the colony it was expressly prohibited.[55] Some few Negroes were seamen as shown by the records of the so-called Negro plot of 1741, and one Negro doctor, Harry by name, was among those executed during the time of that insane public excitement.[56]

From about 1835 until 1841 a weekly newspaper, The Colored American, owned and published by Charles B. Ray, Philip A. Bell and others, was published in New York. It had an extensive circulation from Boston to Cincinnati. From this source a number of employments and business enterprises of Negroes in the New York of that period were ascertained. The occupations included three carpenters and joiners, five boot and shoe-makers, five tailors, two music teachers, four teachers of private and evening schools, one newspaper agent, one engraver, one watch and clock-maker, one sign-painter, two dress and cloak makers.[57]

In this period between 1830 and 1860, there were many engaged in domestic and personal service. Most of the smaller hotels of the times had colored waiters. The Metropolitan had about 60 or 70; other hostelries like the Stuyvesant House, the Earls, the Clifford, and a number of restaurants employed colored waiters. Some cooks and barbers, who also applied leeches, treated corns, and did other minor surgical services, were among this class of wage-earners.

Three dentists, P.H. White, John Burdell, and Joshua Bishop, two physicians, James McCune Smith and W.M. Lively, and three ministers, H.W. Garnet, Chas. B. Ray, and Peter Williams, were prominent persons of the period.

But these facts should not give the impression of unalloyed opportunity in the trades and professions, for the columns of this same Negro newspaper were filled with articles, editorials and appeals which indicate the difficulties in that direction. This is further borne out by the testimony of Charles S. Andrews, the white principal of the Manumission Society School for Negroes. He said his graduates left with every avenue closed against them and spoke of difficulties those who had trades encountered, many being forced to become waiters, barbers, servants, and laborers.[58] That domestic and personal service furnished employment for a large number of Negroes is further shown by the organization of the United Public Waiters' Mutual Beneficial Association. This effort was first started by twelve Negro caterers as a corporation to control and keep up the quality of service both by looking after the efficiency of the many waiters they employed and by preventing "irresponsible men attempting to cater at weddings, balls, parties, and some hotels on special occasions." Originally their constitution, framed in 1869, stated the objects of the organization to be "to consolidate the business interests of its members; to encourage and promote industrial pursuits followed by them; to give preference in patronage to its members."[59]

Five of the original corporators, among whom were George Morris, George E. Green, and Charles W. Hopewell, owned imported silver, china, and other caterers' "service" ranging in valuation from about $1,000 to $4,000, and all of them had ability to manage large banquets and other social functions, supplying waiters, cooks, etc. First smaller caterers, then waiters, were taken into the organization until the membership increased to more than a hundred. And in 1872 they added the mutual benefit features, "to insure both medical and brotherly aid when sick and to assist respectably interring its deceased members." One of the caterers of the early corporation, W.E. Gross, is yet in the business at the Bowery Savings Bank and still serves for special occasions, now mainly among Colored people. The organization as a benefit association continued with varying fortunes down to 1905, when it was dissolved by its remaining 33 members.

That there were many other waiters and servants of the time is certain. A head-waiter of that day estimated the number of colored hotel and restaurant waiters at between 400 and 500 in 1870.

2. OCCUPATIONS IN 1890 AND 1900

By the time of the Federal censuses of 1890 and 1900 the Negro population in New York had grown to considerable proportions, and for this increased population we are fortunate in having full occupational returns. Although these figures included all persons ten years of age and over, those under fourteen years probably formed a negligible part of the totals because the Child Labor Laws of the State of New York prohibited the employment of children under fourteen years of age.

It appears, as was expected, that the large majority of Negro wage-earners were engaged in domestic and personal service. But it is significant that in 1890 there were among the male population 236 bookkeepers, accountants, etc., 476 draymen, hackmen, and teamsters, and 427 were engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. Among the females, there were 418 dressmakers, 103 seamstresses, and 67 nurses and midwives.

The figures for 1900 show a large percentage of increase in domestic and personal service. In occupations classed under trade and transportation, Negro wage-earners increased 450.3 per cent compared with an increase of 177.2 per cent among native whites. Nor is this increase due entirely to semi-personal service occupations for the class of clerks, bookkeepers, etc., had increased from 236 in 1890 to 456 in 1900; draymen, hackmen, and teamsters numbered 1,439 in 1900 as compared with 476 in 1890, an increase of 202.3 per cent. In manufacturing and mechanical pursuits the percentage of increase during the ten years, 1890 to 1900, was 140.3 per cent, larger than that of the native whites, 137.3 per cent. Only one occupation in this class had a smaller increase of Negro workers than 75 per cent. Machinists increased from 7 to 47; brick and stone masons from 20 to 94, or 370 per cent; stationary engineers and firemen from 61 to 227, or 271.1 per cent. Other comparisons indicate clearly a similarly favorable advance in many occupations other than domestic and personal service. Large allowances, of course, must be made for the errors in gathering the figures of the two censuses; yet this does not account for all of the decided increases shown. It must be accounted for on the ground that slowly the walls of inefficiency on one side and of prejudice on the other which have confined Negroes to the more menial and lower-paid employments are being broken down. This progress has come in the face of the fact that the more ambitious and efficient individual is "tied to his group."[60]

In 1890 and 1900 a large number of occupations could not be included in the table because the figures for 1890 were not available. The comparison of the two censuses shows clearly that there is for Negro wage-earners a probable enlargement of the scope of occupations outside of domestic and personal service.

Table XVI below gives in detail the number and percent of increase of the native white and Negro wage-earners, ten years of age and over, engaged in selected occupations in New York City in 1890 and 1900:

Table XVI. Native White and Negro Wage-earners, Ten Years of Age and Over, Engaged in Selected Occupations, New York City, 1890 and 1900.[A]

Occupation. Male.

Native white. Negro.

1890. 1900. Per cent increase. 1890. 1900. Per cent increase.

Domestic and personal service 16,887 42,621 152.4 4,975 27,956 461.9

Barbers and hairdressers 1,017 1,936 60.9 111 215 —

Bartenders 2,530 5,776 128.3 29 84 —

Janitors and sextons 712 2,037 186.2 336 800 118.6

Laborers (not classified) 8,807 26,669 203.1 882 3,719 352.4

Servants and waiters[B] 3,821 6,473 69.4 3,647 6,280 72.2

Trade and transportation 69,162 170,350 146.3 1,520 5,338 450.3

Boatmen and sailors 1,024 3,675 258.9 106 145 36.8

Bookkeepers and accountants[F] 34,960 16,526 — 236 33 —

Clerks and copyists — 62,921 — — 423 —

Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc. 12,908 31,695 145.5 476 1,439 202.3

Hostlers[C] 840 1,659 — 100 633 —

Messengers, errand and office boys[D] } {10,578 } { 355 }

Packers and shippers } 7,711 { 2,026 } 117.4 559 { 23 } 347.4

Porters and helpers (in stores) } { 4,157 } {2,143 }

Salesmen 8,398 29,889 255.9 15 94 526.7

Steam railroad employees 3,321 7,224 121.1 28 70 150.0

Salesmen 8,398 29,889 255.9 15 94 526.7

Steam railroad employees 3,321 7,224 121.1 28 70 150.0

Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits 30,180 71,613 137.3 427 1,026 140.3

Blacksmiths 1,169 2,490 113.0 9 29 —

Masons (brick and stone) 2,278 5,032 120.1 20 94 370.0

Painters, glaziers and varnishers 5,805 12,947 123.0 99 177 78.8

Plasterers 701 1,592 127.1 10 51 410.0

Plumbers, gas and steam fitters 5,225 12,355 136.4 11 31 —

Carpenters and joiners 4,712 11,471 143.4 33 94 184.8

Tobacco and cigar factory operatives 1,940 2,182 12.0 146 189 29.4

Tailors 2,200 4,545 106.6 20 69 245.0

Upholsterers 860 1,447 68.2 11 18 63.3

Engineers and firemen (not locomotive) 2,622 8,129 210.0 61 227 272.1

Machinists 2,368 9,423 297.9 7 47 —

Total 116,224 284,584 144.8 6,922 34,321 395.8

Occupation. Female.

Native white. Negro.

1890. 1900. Per cent increase. 1890. 1900. Per cent increase.

Musicians and teachers of music 950 2,581 171.7 24 73 204.2

Housekeepers and stewardesses 797 2,421 203.8 83 226 172.3

Laundresses 1,416 4,329 205.7 1,526 3,224 111.3

Nurses and midwives 1,220 4,416 262.0 67 290 332.8

Servants and waitresses[E] 11,140 22,616 103.0 3,754 10,297 174.3

Clerks and copyists 2,505 7,811 419.0 5 22 —

Bookkeepers and accountants 1,492 6,998 360.0 2 10 —

Stenographers and typewriters 1,356 9,518 601.9 3 14 —

Saleswomen 7,476 18,315 144.7 4 13 —

Dressmakers 13,106 22,137 68.9 418 813 94.5

Seamstresses 4,206 7,855 86.7 103 249 141.7

Total 45,664 108,997 138.5 5,989 15,231 154.3

NOTES FOR TABLE XVI.

OCCUPATIONS IN 1905

In the 2,500 families, composed of 9,788 persons, 1,859 were excluded because of their being under fifteen years of age and 82 were excluded because, although members of wage-earning families, they themselves were either in a professional occupation, or were engaged in a business enterprise on their own account. This left 7,847 individual wage-earners, 3,802 of whom were male and 4,045 were female. Both the male and the female wage-earners show a very large percentage employed in domestic and personal service, 40.2 per cent male and 89.3 per cent female, a large percentage of whom doubtless were married women and widows with children.[61] But it is to be noted as important that among the males, 20.6 per cent were engaged in some occupation classified under Trade and 9.4 per cent under Transportation. While some of these occupations may differ little in character from domestic and personal service, yet the occupations that are entirely removed from that classification are sufficient in number to show, as did the figures for 1890 and 1900, the possibility of Negroes in considerable numbers securing a scope of employment which includes other occupations than those of domestic and personal service.

The State Census figures are more detailed than those of the Federal Census. For example, under domestic and personal service, the Federal Census has grouped together male waiters and servants, while the State Census figures have been tabulated separately. It is also probable that the classification in 1890 and 1900 included wage-earners who were classified differently in 1905 and vice versa. And in 1905 professional occupations as well as all persons doing business on their own account were excluded. Differences in the figures may, therefore, be allowed.

Table XVII, which follows, shows the latest figures available on the scope of employment of Negro wage-earners:

Table XVII. Occupations of Negro Wage-earners, Fifteen Years of Age and Over, Manhattan, 1905.[A]

MALE

Occupation. Totals. No. Per cent

Public service 55 — 1.4

Sailors and mariners (U.S.) — 3 —

Federal employees (custom house, immigration, etc.) — 6 —

Post office (clerks) — 13 —

Post office (carriers) — 9 —

Street cleaning department — 23 —

Miscellaneous — 1 —

Domestic and personal service 1,527 — 0.2

Barbers — 27 —

Bartenders — 24 —

Bellmen and doormen — 154 4.0

Bootblacks — 2 —

Butlers — 41 —

Chauffeurs — 9 —

Cleaners (house, etc.) — 15 —

Coachmen — 68 1.8

Cooks — 110 2.9

Cooks (dining car) — 7 —

Chimney sweeps — 2 —

Domestic servants (not specified) — 12 —

Elevatormen — 365 9.6

Hallmen (hotel, etc.) — 90 2.4

Hotel managers — 3 —

Housemen — 29 —

Janitors and caretakers — 83 2.2

Stewards — 38 —

Valets — 18 —

Waiters — 425 11.2

Miscellaneous — 5 —

Manufacturers and mechanical pursuits 300 — 7.9

Asphalt layers — 6 —

Blacksmiths — 5 —

Carpenters — 18 —

Confectioners — 3 —

Drill runners — 5 —

Electricians — 3 —

Engineers (not locomotive) — 48 —

Firemen (not locomotive) — 19 —

Factory employees (not specified) — 6 —

Hodcarriers — 9 —

Harness and saddlemakers — 2 —

Cigarmakers — 32 —

Kalsominers — 8 —

Machinists — 12 —

Mechanics (automobile, bicycle, etc.) — 9 —

Masons (stone) — 2 —

Masons (brick) — 8 —

Masons (not specified) — 5 —

Painters and decorators — 26 —

Plasterers — 7 —

Plumbers, steam and gas fitters — 5 —

Printers and compositors — 14 —

Shoemakers and repairers — 6 —

Tailors — 20 —

Miscellaneous — 22 —

Trade 783 — 20.6

Agents (real estate) — 4 —

Bookkeepers — 3 —

Clerks (office, banks, etc.) — 11 —

Shipping clerks — 9 —

Clerks and salesmen (in stores, etc.) — 63 1.7

Laundry employees — 13 —

Messengers, errand boys and office boys — 60 1.6

Watchmen — 10 —

Porters (stores, etc.) — 587 15.4

Stenographers — 5 —

Miscellaneous — 19 —

Transportation 359 — 9.4

Boatmen and seamen — 17 —

Expressmen, truckmen and drivers — 119 3.1

Hostlers and stablemen — 47 1.2

Longshoremen — 75 2.0

Porters (railway) — 83 2.2

Porters (street railway) — 7 —

Steamship company (not specified) — 4 —

Street railway (not specified) — 3 —

Telephone operators — 3 —

Car cleaner — 1 —

Unclassified 778 — 20.5

Gardeners — 3 —

Laborers (not specified) — 616 16.2

Musicians and musical performers — 55 1.4

Foremen (not specified) — 9 —

Theatrical (not specified) — 6 —

Unknown — 94 —

Total for all occupations 3,802

FEMALE

Occupation. Totals. No. Per cent

Domestic and personal service 3,456 — 89.3

Chambermaids — 22 —

Cooks — 149

Day workers out — 19

Domestic servants (not specified) — 88 2.3

Hairdressers — 6 —

Manicurists and masseurs — 18 —

Housekeepers — 60 —

Housewives — 51 —

General housework (wages) — 72 18.6

General housework (not specified) — 1572 —

Janitress and caretakers — 28 —

Laundresses — 543 14.0

Ladies' maids — 23 —

Maids (not specified) — 80 2.1

Nurses — 21 —

Waitresses — 47 —

Miscellaneous — 4 —

Trade 25 — 0.6

Bookkeepers — 2 —

Clerks and saleswomen — 6 —

Stenographers and typewriters — 8 —

Miscellaneous — 9 —

Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits 564 — 5.5

Dressmakers — 164 4.2

Garment workers — 18 .5

Milliners — 5 —

Seamstresses — 16 —

Tailors' assistants — 3 —

Miscellaneous — 6 —

Unclassified 176 — 4.6

Telephone operators — 1 —

Unknown — 175 —

Total for all occupations 4,045 — —

Before leaving the subject of the restricted scope of occupations among Negroes, something should be said of the far-reaching effects this restriction has upon the life of the wage-earners. Negroes are crowded into these poorer-paid occupations because many of them are inefficient and because of the color prejudice on the part of white workmen and employers.[62] Both of these influences are severe handicaps in the face of the competition in this advanced industrial community.

Restricted thus to a few occupations, there is a larger number of competitors within a limited field with a consequent tendency to lower an already low wage scale. In this way the limitations of occupational mobility react upon income, producing a low standard of living, the lodger evil, and social consequences pointed out below (pp. 80, 89, 144 ff).

To sum up the occupational condition of Negro wage-earners: The large majority of Negroes are employed to-day in occupations of domestic and personal service. This is partly the result of the historical conditions of servitude, of a prejudice on the part of white workmen and employers, which restricts them to this lower field, and of the inefficiency of Negro wage-earners for competition in occupations requiring a higher order of training and skill. The steady increase in 1890, 1900 and 1905 of numbers employed in occupations other than personal and domestic service is prophetic of a probable widening scope of the field of employment open to them.

FOOTNOTES: