Footnotes (continued 2)

380.

Marie Trevelyan, Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales (London, 1909), pp. 22-24.

381.

Jonathan Ceredig Davies, Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.

382.

Joseph Train, An Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), i. 314 sq.

383.

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx (Oxford, 1901), i. 309; id., “The Coligny Calendar,” Proceedings of the British Academy, 1909-1910, pp. 261 sq. See further The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 53 sq.

384.

Professor Frank Granger, “Early Man,” in The Victoria History of the County of Nottingham, edited by William Page, i. (London, 1906) pp. 186 sq.

385.

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx (Oxford, 1901), i. 310; id., “Manx Folk-lore and Superstitions,” Folk-lore, ii. (1891) pp. 303 sq.

386.

P. W. Joyce, A Social History of Ancient Ireland (London, 1903), i. 290 sq., referring to Kuno Meyer, Hibernia Minora, p. 49 and Glossary, 23.

387.

J. B. Bury, The Life of St. Patrick (London, 1905), pp. 104 sqq.

388.

Above, p. 147.

389.

Geoffrey Keating, D.D., The History of Ireland, translated by John O'Mahony (New York, 1857), pp. 300 sq.

390.

(Sir) John Rhys, “Manx Folk-lore and Superstition,” Folk-lore, ii. (1891) p. 303; id., Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx (Oxford, 1901), i. 309. Compare P. W. Joyce, A Social History of Ancient Ireland (London, 1903), i. 291: “The custom of driving cattle through fires against disease on the eve of the 1st of May, and on the eve of the 24th June (St. John's Day), continued in Ireland, as well as in the Scottish Highlands, to a period within living memory.” In a footnote Mr. Joyce refers to Carmichael, Carmina Gadelica, ii. 340, for Scotland, and adds, “I saw it done in Ireland.”

391.

L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden (London, 1870), pp. 233 sq.

392.

Reinsberg - Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen (Prague, n.d.), pp. 211 sq.; Br. Jelínek, “Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens,” Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John, Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), p. 71.

393.

J. A. E. Köhler, Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande (Leipsic, 1867), p. 373. The superstitions relating to witches at this season are legion. For instance, in Saxony and Thuringia any one who labours under a physical blemish can easily rid himself of it by transferring it to the witches on Walpurgis Night. He has only to go out to a cross-road, make three crosses on the blemish, and say, “In the name of God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost.” Thus the blemish, whatever it may be, is left behind him at the cross-road, and when the witches sweep by on their way to the Brocken, they must take it with them, and it sticks to them henceforth. Moreover, three crosses chalked up on the doors of houses and cattle-stalls on Walpurgis Night will effectually prevent any of the infernal crew from entering and doing harm to man or beast. See E. Sommer, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen (Halle, 1846), pp. 148 sq.; Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie (Chemnitz, 1759), p. 116.

394.

See The Scapegoat, pp. 158 sqq.

395.

As to the Midsummer Festival of Europe in general see the evidence collected in the “Specimen Calendarii Gentilis,” appended to the Edda Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina dicta, Pars iii. (Copenhagen, 1828) pp. 1086-1097.

396.

John Mitchell Kemble, The Saxons in England, New Edition (London, 1876), i. 361 sq., quoting “an ancient MS. written in England, and now in the Harleian Collection, No. 2345, fol. 50.” The passage is quoted in part by J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1882-1883), i. 298 sq., by R. T. Hampson, Medii Aevi Kalendarium (London, 1841), i. 300, and by W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus, p. 509. The same explanations of the Midsummer fires and of the custom of trundling a burning wheel on Midsummer Eve are given also by John Beleth, a writer of the twelfth century. See his Rationale Divinorum Officiorum (appended to the Rationale Divinorum Officiorum of G. [W.] Durandus, Lyons, 1584), p. 556 recto: “Solent porro hoc tempore [the Eve of St. John the Baptist] ex veteri consuetudine mortuorum animalium ossa comburi, quod hujusmodi habet originem. Sunt enim animalia, quae dracones appellamus.... Haec inquam animalia in aere volant, in aquis natant, in terra ambulant. Sed quando in aere ad libidinem concitantur (quod fere fit) saepe ipsum sperma vel in puteos, vel in aquas fluviales ejiciunt ex quo lethalis sequitur annus. Adversus haec ergo hujusmodi inventum est remedium, ut videlicet rogus ex ossibus construeretur, et ita fumus hujusmodi animalia fugaret. Et quia istud maxime hoc tempore fiebat, idemetiam modo ab omnibus observatur.... Consuetum item est hac vigilia ardentes deferri faculas quod Johannes fuerit ardens lucerna, et qui vias Domini praeparaverit. Sed quod etiam rota vertatur hinc esse putant quia in eum circulum tunc Sol descenderit ultra quem progredi nequit, a quo cogitur paulatim descendere.” The substance of the passage is repeated in other words by G. Durandus (Wilh. Durantis), a writer of the thirteenth century, in his Rationale Divinorum Officiorum, lib. vii. cap. 14 (p. 442 verso, ed. Lyons, 1584). Compare J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 516. With the notion that the air is poisoned at midsummer we may compare the popular belief that it is similarly infected at an eclipse. Thus among the Esquimaux on the Lower Yukon river in Alaska “it is believed that a subtle essence or unclean influence descends to the earth during an eclipse, and if any of it is caught in utensils of any kind it will produce sickness. As a result, immediately on the commencement of an eclipse, every woman turns bottom side up all her pots, wooden buckets, and dishes” (E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 431). Similar notions and practices prevail among the peasantry of southern Germany. Thus the Swabian peasants think that during an eclipse of the sun poison falls on the earth; hence at such a time they will not sow, mow, gather fruit or eat it, they bring the cattle into the stalls, and refrain from business of every kind. If the eclipse lasts long, the people get very anxious, set a burning candle on the mantel-shelf of the stove, and pray to be delivered from the danger. See Anton Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 189. Similarly Bavarian peasants imagine that water is poisoned during a solar eclipse (F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 297); and Thuringian bumpkins cover up the wells and bring the cattle home from pasture during an eclipse either of the sun or of the moon; an eclipse is particularly poisonous when it happens to fall on a Wednesday. See August Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 287. As eclipses are commonly supposed by the ignorant to be caused by a monster attacking the sun or moon (E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture,2 London, 1873, i. 328 sqq.), we may surmise, on the analogy of the explanation given of the Midsummer fires, that the unclean influence which is thought to descend on the earth at such times is popularly attributed to seed discharged by the monster or possibly by the sun or moon then in conjunction with each other.

397.

The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe, 1570, edited by R. C. Hope (London, 1880), p. 54 verso. As to this work see above, p. 125 note 1.

398.

J. Boemus, Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium (Lyons, 1541), pp. 225 sq.

399.

Tessier, “Sur la fête annuelle de la roue flamboyante de la Saint-Jean, à Basse-Kontz, arrondissement de Thionville,” Mémoires et dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, v. (1823) pp. 379-393. Tessier witnessed the ceremony, 23rd June 1822 (not 1823, as is sometimes stated). His account has been reproduced more or less fully by J. Grimm (Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 515 sq.), W. Mannhardt (Der Baumkultus, pp. 510 sq.), and H. Gaidoz (“Le dieu gaulois du Soleil et le symbolisme de la Roue,” Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 24 sq.).

400.

Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 373 sq.; compare id., iii. 327 sq. As to the burning discs at the spring festivals, see above, pp. 116 sq., 119, 143.

401.

Op. cit. ii. 260 sq., iii. 936, 956, iv. 2. p. 360.

402.

Op. cit. ii. 260.

403.

Op. cit. iv. 1. p. 242. We have seen (p. 163) that in the sixteenth century these customs and beliefs were common in Germany. It is also a German superstition that a house which contains a brand from the midsummer bonfire will not be struck by lightning (J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, i. p. 217, § 185).

404.

J. Boemus, Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium (Lyons, 1541), p. 226.

405.

Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, Aus dem Lechrain (Munich, 1855), pp. 181 sqq.; W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus, p. 510.

406.

A. Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. pp. 96 sqq., § 128, pp. 103 sq., § 129; id., Aus Schwaben (Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 116-120; E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 423 sqq.; W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus, p. 510.

407.

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie (Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 215 sq., § 242; id., ii. 549.

408.

A. Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 99-101.

409.

Elard Hugo Mayer, Badisches Volksleben (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 103 sq., 225 sq.

410.

W. von Schulenberg, in Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Jahrgang 1897, pp. 494 sq. (bound up with Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xxix. 1897).

411.

H. Gaidoz, “Le dieu Gaulois du Soleil et le symbolisme de la Roue,” Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 29 sq.

412.

Bruno Stehle, “Volksglauben, Sitten und Gebräuche in Lothringen,” Globus, lix. (1891) pp. 378 sq.; “Die Sommerwendfeier im St. Amarinthale,” Der Urquell, N.F., i. (1897) pp. 181 sqq.

413.

J. H. Schmitz, Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 40 sq. According to one writer, the garlands are composed of St. John's wort (Montanus, Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube, Iserlohn, n.d., p. 33). As to the use of St. John's wort at Midsummer, see below, vol. ii. pp. 54 sqq.

414.

A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche (Leipsic, 1848), p. 390.

415.

Montanus, Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube (Iserlohn, n.d.), pp. 33 sq.

416.

C. L. Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch (Berlin, 1867), ii. 144 sqq.

417.

Philo vom Walde, Schlesien in Sage und Brauch (Berlin, n.d.), p. 124; Paul Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 136 sq.

418.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 517 sq.

419.

From information supplied by Mr. Sigurd K. Heiberg, engineer, of Bergen, Norway, who in his boyhood regularly collected fuel for the fires. I have to thank Miss Anderson, of Barskimming, Mauchline, Ayrshire, for kindly procuring the information for me from Mr. Heiberg. The Blocksberg, where German as well as Norwegian witches gather for their great Sabbaths on the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night) and Midsummer Eve, is commonly identified with the Brocken, the highest peak of the Harz mountains. But in Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and probably elsewhere, villages have their own local Blocksberg, which is generally a hill or open place in the neighbourhood; a number of places in Pomerania go by the name of the Blocksberg. See J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 878 sq.; Ulrich Jahn, Hexenwesen und Zauberei in Pommern (Breslau, 1886), pp. 4 sq.; id., Volkssagen aus Pommern und Rügen (Stettin, 1886), p. 329.

420.

L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden (London, 1870), pp. 259, 265.

421.

L. Lloyd, op. cit. pp. 261 sq. These springs are called “sacrificial fonts” (Offer källor) and are “so named because in heathen times the limbs of the slaughtered victim, whether man or beast, were here washed prior to immolation” (L. Lloyd, op. cit. p. 261).

422.

E. Hoffmann-Krayer, Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes (Zurich, 1913), p. 164.

423.

Ignaz V. Zingerle, Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes2 (Innsbruck, 1871), ii. p. 159, § 1354.

424.

I. V. Zingerle, op. cit. p. 159, §§ 1353, 1355, 1356; W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus, p. 513.

425.

W. Mannhardt, l.c.

426.

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie (Munich, 1848-1855), i. p. 210, § 231.

427.

Theodor Vernaleken, Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich (Vienna, 1859), pp. 307 sq.

428.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 519; Theodor Vernaleken, Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich (Vienna, 1859), p. 308; Joseph Virgil Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 80, § 636; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen (Prague, n.d.), pp. 306-311; Br. Jelínek, “Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens,” Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), pp. 84-86.

429.

Willibald Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), pp. 263-265.

430.

Anton Peter, Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 287.

431.

Th. Vernaleken, Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich (Vienna, 1859), pp. 308 sq.

432.

The Dying God, p. 262. Compare M. Kowalewsky, in Folk-lore, i. (1890) p. 467.

433.

W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, Second Edition (London, 1872), p. 240.

434.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 519; W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People (London, 1872), pp. 240, 391.

435.

W. R. S. Ralston, op. cit. p. 240.

436.

W. R. S. Ralston, l.c.

437.

W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens (Berlin, 1837), p. 277.

438.

M. Töppen, Aberglauben aus Masuren2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 71.

439.

F. S. Krauss, “Altslavische Feuergewinnung,” Globus, lix. (1891) p. 318.

440.

J. G. Kohl, Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen (Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), i. 178-180, ii. 24 sq. Ligho was an old heathen deity, whose joyous festival used to fall in spring.

441.

Ovid, Fasti, vi. 775 sqq.

442.

Friederich S. Krauss, Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven (Vienna, 1885), pp. 176 sq.

443.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 519.

444.

H. von Wlislocki, Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Magyar (Münster i. W., 1893), pp. 40-44.

445.

A. von Ipolyi, “Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie aus Ungarn,” Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde, i. (1853) pp. 270 sq.

446.

J.G. Kohl, Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen, ii. 268 sq.; F. J. Wiedemann, Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten (St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 362. The word which I have translated “weeds” is in Esthonian kaste-heinad, in German Thaugras. Apparently it is the name of a special kind of weed.

447.

Fr. Kreutzwald und H. Neus, Mythische und Magische Lieder der Ehsten (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 62.

448.

J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. (1872) pp. 62 sq. Wiedemann also observes that the sports in which young couples engage in the woods on this evening are not always decorous (Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten, p. 362).

449.

J. G. Kohl, Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen, ii. 447 sq.

450.

J. G. Georgi, Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 36; August Freiherr von Haxthausen, Studien über die innere Zustände das Volksleben und insbesondere die ländlichen Einrichtungen Russlands (Hanover, 1847), i. 446 sqq.

451.

Alfred de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 19.

452.

It is notable that St. John is the only saint whose birthday the Church celebrates with honours like those which she accords to the nativity of Christ. Compare Edmond Doutté, Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord (Algiers, 1908), p. 571 note 1.

453.

Bossuet, Œuvres (Versailles, 1815-1819), vi. 276 (“Catéchisme du diocèse de Meaux”). His description of the superstitions is, in his own words, as follows: “Danser à l'entour du feu, jouer, faire des festins, chanter des chansons deshonnêtes, jeter des herbes par-dessus le feu, en cueillir avant midi ou à jeun, en porter sur soi, les conserver le long de l'année, garder des tisons ou des charbons du feu, et autres semblables.” This and other evidence of the custom of kindling Midsummer bonfires in France is cited by Ch. Cuissard in his tract Les Feux de la Saint-Jean (Orleans, 1884).

454.

Ch. Cuissard, Les Feux de la Saint-Jean (Orleans, 1884), pp. 40 sq.

455.

A. Le Braz, La Légende de la Mort en Basse-Bretagne (Paris, 1893), p. 279. For an explanation of the custom of throwing a pebble into the fire, see below, p. 240.

456.

M. Quellien, quoted by Alexandre Bertrand, La Religion des Gaulois (Paris, 1897), pp. 116 sq.

457.

Collin de Plancy, Dictionnaire Infernal (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 40; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie (Göttingen, 1852-1857), i. p. 217, § 185; A. Breuil, “Du Culte de St. Jean Baptiste,” Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie, viii. (Amiens, 1845) pp. 189 sq.

458.

Eugène Cortet, Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses (Paris, 1867), p. 216; Ch. Cuissard, Les Feux de la Saint-Jean (Orleans, 1884), p. 24.

459.

Paul Sébillot, Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne (Paris, 1886), pp. 192-195. In Upper Brittany these bonfires are called rieux or raviers.

460.

A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 219; E. Cortet, Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, p. 216.

461.

A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France, pp. 219, 228, 231; E. Cortet, op. cit. pp. 215 sq.

462.

J. Lecœur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 219-224.

463.

This description is quoted by Madame Clément (Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses, etc., de la Belgique Méridionale, Avesnes, 1846, pp. 394-396); F. Liebrecht (Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia, Hanover, 1856, pp. 209 sq.); and W. Mannhardt (Antike Wald und Feldkulte, Berlin, 1877, pp. 323 sqq.) from the Magazin pittoresque, Paris, viii. (1840) pp. 287 sqq. A slightly condensed account is given, from the same source, by E. Cortet (Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, pp. 221 sq.).

464.

Bazin, quoted by Breuil, in Mémoires de la Société d'Antiquaires de Picardie, viii. (1845) p. 191 note.

465.

Correspondents quoted by A. Bertrand, La Religion des Gaulois (Paris, 1897), pp. 118, 406.

466.

Correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand, op. cit. p. 407.

467.

Felix Chapiseau, Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche (Paris, 1902), i. 318-320. In Perche the midsummer bonfires were called marolles. As to the custom formerly observed at Bullou, near Chateaudun, see a correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand, La Religion des Gaulois (Paris, 1897), p. 117.

468.

Albert Meyrac, Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes, et Contes des Ardennes (Charleville, 1890), pp. 88 sq.

469.

L. F. Sauvé, Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), p. 186.

470.

Désiré Monnier, Traditions populaires comparées (Paris, 1854), pp. 207 sqq.; E. Cortet, Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, pp. 217 sq.

471.

Bérenger-Féraud, Réminiscences populaires de la Provence (Paris, 1885), p. 142.

472.

Charles Beauquier, Les Mois en Franche-Comté (Paris, 1900), p. 89. The names of the bonfires vary with the place; among them are failles, bourdifailles, bâs or baux, feulères or folières, and chavannes.

473.

La Bresse Louhannaise, Juin, 1906, p. 207.

474.

Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France (Paris, 1875), i. 78 sqq. The writer adopts the absurd derivation of jônée from Janus. Needless to say that our old friend Baal, Bel, or Belus figures prominently in this and many other accounts of the European fire-festivals.

475.

A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 150.

476.

Correspondent, quoted by A. Bertrand, La Religion des Gaulois (Paris, 1897), p. 408.

477.

Guerry, “Sur les usages et traditions du Poitou,” Mémoires et dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, viii. (1829) pp. 451 sq.

478.

Breuil, in Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie, viii. (1845) p. 206; E. Cortet, Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, p. 216; Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France, i. 83; J. Lecœur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand, ii. 225.

479.

H. Gaidoz, “Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,” Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 26, note 3.

480.

L. Pineau, Le Folk-lore du Poitou (Paris, 1892), pp. 499 sq. In Périgord the ashes of the midsummer bonfire are searched for the hair of the Virgin (E. Cortet, Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, p. 219).

481.

A. de Nore, Coutumes Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France, pp. 149 sq.; E. Cortet, op. cit. pp. 218 sq.

482.

Dupin, “Notice sur quelques fêtes et divertissemens populaires du département des Deux-Sèvres,” Mémoires et Dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, iv. (1823) p. 110.

483.

J. L. M. Noguès, Les mœurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis (Saintes, 1891), pp. 72, 178 sq.

484.

H. Gaidoz, “Le dieu soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,” Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 30.

485.

Ch. Cuissard, Les Feux de la Saint-Jean (Orleans, 1884), pp. 22 sq.

486.

A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France, p. 127.

487.

Aubin-Louis Millin, Voyage dans les Départemens du Midi de la France (Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 341 sq.

488.

Aubin-Louis Millin, op. cit. iii. 28.

489.

A. de Nore, op. cit. pp. 19 sq.; Bérenger-Féraud, Reminiscences populaires de la Provence (Paris, 1885), pp. 135-141. As to the custom at Toulon, see Poncy, quoted by Breuil, Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie, viii. (1845) p. 190 note. The custom of drenching people on this occasion with water used to prevail in Toulon, as well as in Marseilles and other towns in the south of France. The water was squirted from syringes, poured on the heads of passers-by from windows, and so on. See Breuil, op. cit. pp. 237 sq.

490.

A. de Nore, op. cit. pp. 20 sq.; E. Cortet, op. cit. pp. 218, 219 sq.

491.

Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Calendrier Belge (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 416 sq., 439.

492.

Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, op. cit. i. 439-442.

493.

Madame Clément, Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses, etc., du Département du Nord (Cambrai, 1836), p. 364; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie (Göttingen, 1852-1857), ii. 392; W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus, p. 513.

494.

E. Monseur, Folklore Wallon (Brussels, n.d.), p. 130, §§ 1783, 1786, 1787.

495.

Joseph Strutt, The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England, New Edition, by W. Hone (London, 1834), p. 359.

496.

John Stow, A Survay of London, edited by Henry Morley (London, n.d.), pp. 126 sq. Stow's Survay was written in 1598.

497.

John Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1882-1883), i. 338; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), p. 331. Both writers refer to Status Scholae Etonensis (a.d. 1560).

498.

John Aubrey, Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme (London, 1881), p. 26.

499.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1882-1883), i. 300 sq., 318, compare pp. 305, 306, 308 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus, p. 512. Compare W. Hutchinson, View of Northumberland, vol. ii. (Newcastle, 1778), Appendix, p. (15), under the head “Midsummer”:—“It is usual to raise fires on the tops of high hills and in the villages, and sport and danse around them; this is of very remote antiquity, and the first cause lost in the distance of time.”

500.

Dr. Lyttelton, Bishop of Carlisle, quoted by William Borlase, Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall (London, 1769), p. 135 note.

501.

County Folk-lore, vol. iv. Northumberland, collected by M. C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 76, quoting E. Mackenzie, An Historical, Topographical, and Descriptive View of the County of Northumberland, Second Edition (Newcastle, 1825), i. 217.

502.

County Folk-lore, vol. iv. Northumberland, collected by M. C. Balfour, p. 75.

503.

County Folk-lore, vol. iv. Northumberland, collected by M. C. Balfour, p. 75.

504.

The Denham Tracts, edited by J. Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 342 sq., quoting Archæologia Aeliana, N.S., viii. 73, and the Proceedings of the Berwickshire Naturalists' Club, vi. 242 sq.; County Folk-lore, vol. iv. Northumberland, collected by M. C. Balfour (London, 1904), pp. 75 sq. Whalton is a village of Northumberland, not far from Morpeth.

505.

County Folk-lore, vol. vi. East Riding of Yorkshire, collected and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1912), p. 102.

506.

John Aubrey, Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme (London, 1881), p. 96, compare id., p. 26.

507.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1882-1883), i. 311.

508.

William Borlase, LL.D., Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall (London, 1769), pp. 135 sq. The Eve of St. Peter is June 28th. Bonfires have been lit elsewhere on the Eve or the day of St. Peter. See above, pp. 194 sq., 196 sq., and below, pp. 199 sq., 202, 207.

509.

J. Brand, op. cit. i. 318, 319; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), p. 315.

510.

William Bottrell, Traditions and Hearthside Stories of West Cornwall (Penzance, 1870), pp. 8 sq., 55 sq.; James Napier, Folk-lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland (Paisley, 1879), p. 173.

511.

Richard Edmonds, The Land's End District (London, 1862), pp. 66 sq.; Robert Hunt, Popular Romances of the West of England, Third Edition (London, 1881), pp. 207 sq.

512.

Marie Trevelyan, Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales (London, 1909), pp. 27 sq. Compare Jonathan Ceredig Davies, Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.

513.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1882-1883), i. 318.

514.

Joseph Train, Account of the Isle of Man (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 120.

515.

Sir Henry Piers, Description of the County of Westmeath, written in 1682, published by (General) Charles Vallancey, Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicis, i. (Dublin, 1786) pp. 123 sq.

516.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1882-1883), i. 303, quoting the author of the Survey of the South of Ireland, p. 232.

517.

J. Brand, op. cit. i. 305, quoting the author of the Comical Pilgrim's Pilgrimage into Ireland (1723), p. 92.

518.

The Gentleman's Magazine, vol. lxv. (London, 1795) pp. 124 sq. The writer dates the festival on June 21st, which is probably a mistake.

519.

T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), pp. 321 sq., quoting the Liverpool Mercury of June 29th, 1867.

520.

L. L. Duncan, “Further Notes from County Leitrim,” Folk-lore, v. (1894) p. 193.

521.

A. C. Haddon, “A Batch of Irish Folk-lore,” Folk-lore, iv. (1893) pp. 351, 359.

522.

G. H. Kinahan, “Notes on Irish Folk-lore,” Folk-lore Record, iv. (1881) p. 97.

523.

Charlotte Elizabeth, Personal Recollections, quoted by Rev. Alexander Hislop, The Two Babylons (Edinburgh, 1853), p. 53.

524.

Lady Wilde, Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland, (London, 1887), i. 214 sq.

525.

T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), pp. 322 sq., quoting the Hibernian Magazine, July 1817. As to the worship of wells in ancient Ireland, see P. W. Joyce, A Social History of Ancient Ireland (London, 1903), i. 288 sq., 366 sqq.

526.

Rev. A. Johnstone, describing the parish of Monquhitter in Perthshire, in Sir John Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xxi. 145. Mr. W. Warde Fowler writes that in Scotland “before the bonfires were kindled on midsummer eve, the houses were decorated with foliage brought from the woods” (Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic, London, 1899, pp. 80 sq.). For his authority he refers to Chambers' Journal, July, 1842.

527.

John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre, Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, edited by A. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 436.

528.

Rev. Mr. Shaw, Minister of Elgin, in Pennant's “Tour in Scotland,” printed in John Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels (London, 1808-1814), iii. 136.

529.

A. Macdonald, “Midsummer Bonfires,” Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 105 sq.

530.

From notes kindly furnished to me by the Rev. J. C. Higgins, parish minister of Tarbolton. Mr. Higgins adds that he knows of no superstition connected with the fire, and no tradition of its origin. I visited the scene of the bonfire in 1898, but, as Pausanias says (viii. 41. 6) in similar circumstances, “I did not happen to arrive at the season of the festival.” Indeed the snow was falling thick as I trudged to the village through the beautiful woods of “the Castle o' Montgomery” immortalized by Burns. From a notice in The Scotsman of 26th June, 1906 (p. 8) it appears that the old custom was observed as usual that year.

531.

Thomas Moresinus, Papatus seu Depravatae Religionis Origo et Incrementum (Edinburgh, 1594), p. 56.

532.

Rev. Dr. George Lawrie, in Sir John Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland, iii. (Edinburgh, 1792) p. 105.

533.

Letter from Dr. Otero Acevado of Madrid, published in Le Temps, September 1898. An extract from the newspaper was sent me, but without mention of the day of the month when it appeared. The fires on St. John's Eve in Spain are mentioned also by J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain, i. 317. Jacob Grimm inferred the custom from a passage in a romance (Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 518). The custom of washing or bathing on the morning of St. John's Day is mentioned by the Spanish historian Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva España, edited by J. F. Ramirez (Mexico, 1867-1880), vol. ii. p. 293. To roll in the dew on the morning of St. John's Day is a cure for diseases of the skin in Normandy, Périgord, and the Abruzzi, as well as in Spain. See J. Lecœur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand, ii. 8; A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France, p. 150; Gennaro Finamore, Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi (Palermo, 1890), p. 157.

534.

M. Longworth Dames and Mrs. E. Seemann, “Folklore of the Azores,” Folk-lore, xiv. (1903) pp. 142 sq.; Theophilo Braga, O Povo Portuguez nos seus Costumes, Crenças e Tradiçoes (Lisbon, 1885), ii. 304 sq., 307 sq.

535.

See below, pp. 234 sqq.

536.

Angelo de Gubernatis, Mythologie des Plantes (Paris, 1878-1882), i. 185 note 1.

537.

Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 202 sq.

538.

G. Finamore, Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi (Palermo, 1890), pp. 154 sq.

539.

G. Finamore, Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi, pp. 158-160. We may compare the Provençal and Spanish customs of bathing and splashing water at midsummer. See above, pp. 193 sq., 208.

540.

Giuseppe Pitrè, Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane (Palermo, 1881), pp. 246, 308 sq.; id., Usi e Costumi, Credenze e Pregiudizi del Popolo Siciliano (Palermo, 1889), pp. 146 sq.

541.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 518.

542.

V. Busuttil, Holiday Customs in Malta, and Sports, Usages, Ceremonies, Omens, and Superstitions of the Maltese People (Malta, 1894), pp. 56 sqq. The extract was kindly sent to me by Mr. H. W. Underwood (letter dated 14th November, 1902, Birbeck Bank Chambers, Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, W.C.). See Folk-lore, xiv. (1903) pp. 77 sq.

543.

W. R. Paton, in Folk-lore, ii. (1891) p. 128. The custom was reported to me when I was in Greece in 1890 (Folk-lore, i. (1890) p. 520).

544.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 519.

545.

G. Georgeakis et L. Pineau, Le Folk-lore de Lesbos (Paris, 1894), pp. 308 sq.

546.

W. R. Paton, in Folk-lore, vi. (1895) p. 94. From the stones cast into the fire omens may perhaps be drawn, as in Scotland, Wales, and probably Brittany. See above, p. 183, and below, pp. 230 sq., 239, 240.

547.

W. H. D. Rouse, “Folklore from the Southern Sporades,” Folk-lore, x. (1899) p. 179.

548.

Lucy M. J. Garnett, The Women of Turkey and their Folk-lore, the Christian Women (London, 1890), p. 122; G. F. Abbott, Macedonian Folk-lore (Cambridge, 1903), p. 57.

549.

J. G. von Hahn, Albanesische Studien (Jena, 1854), i. 156.

550.

K. von den Steinen, Unter den Natur-Völkern Zentral-Brasiliens (Berlin, 1894), p. 561.

551.

Alcide d'Orbigny, Voyage dans l'Amérique Méridionale, ii. (Paris and Strasbourg, 1839-1843), p. 420; D. Forbes, “On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,” Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, ii. (1870) p. 235.

552.

Edmond Doutté, Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord (Algiers, 1908), pp. 566 sq. For an older but briefer notice of the Midsummer fires in North Africa, see Giuseppe Ferraro, Superstizioni, Usi e Proverbi Monferrini (Palermo, 1886), pp. 34 sq.: “Also in Algeria, among the Mussalmans, and in Morocco, as Alvise da Cadamosto reports in his Relazione dei viaggi d'Africa, which may be read in Ramusio, people used to hold great festivities on St. John's Night; they kindled everywhere huge fires of straw (the Palilia of the Romans), in which they threw incense and perfumes the whole night long in order to invoke the divine blessing on the fruit-trees.” See also Budgett Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902), p. 394: “The Berber festivals are mainly those of Islam, though a few traces of their predecessors are observable. Of these the most noteworthy is Midsummer or St. John's Day, still celebrated in a special manner, and styled El 'Anṣarah. In the Rîf it is celebrated by the lighting of bonfires only, but in other parts there is a special dish prepared of wheat, raisins, etc., resembling the frumenty consumed at the New Year. It is worthy of remark that the Old Style Gregorian calendar is maintained among them, with corruptions of Latin names.”

553.

Edward Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 28-30; id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 79-83.

554.

E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 30 sq.; id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, etc., pp. 83 sq.

555.

Edmond Doutté, Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord (Algiers, 1908), pp. 567 sq.

556.

E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 31 sq.; id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, etc., pp. 84-86.

557.

See K. Vollers, in Dr. James Hastings's Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, iii. (Edinburgh, 1910) s.v. “Calendar (Muslim),” pp. 126 sq. However, L. Ideler held that even before the time of Mohammed the Arab year was lunar and vague, and that intercalation was only employed in order to fix the pilgrimage month in autumn, which, on account of the milder weather and the abundance of food, is the best time for pilgrims to go to Mecca. See L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und techischen Chronologie (Berlin, 1825-1826), ii. 495 sqq.

558.

E. Doutté, Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord, pp. 496, 509, 532, 543, 569. It is somewhat remarkable that the tenth, not the first, day of the first month should be reckoned New Year's Day.

559.

E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 40-42.

560.

E. Doutté, Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord (Algiers, 1908), pp. 541 sq.

561.

E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) p. 42; id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco (Helsingfors, 1913), p. 101.

562.

E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” Folk-lore, xvi. (1905), pp. 42 sq., 46 sq.; id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, etc., in Morocco, pp. 99 sqq.

563.

G. F. Abbott, Macedonian Folk-lore (Cambridge, 1903), pp. 60 sq.

564.

“Narrative of the Adventures of four Russian Sailors, who were cast in a storm upon the uncultivated island of East Spitzbergen,” translated from the German of P. L. Le Roy, in John Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels (London, 1808-1814), i. 603. This passage is quoted from the original by (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, Researches into the Early History of Mankind, Third Edition (London, 1878), pp. 259 sq.

565.

See The Scapegoat, pp. 166 sq.

566.

E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage (Oxford, 1903), i. 110 sqq.

567.

In Eastern Europe to this day the great season for driving out the cattle to pasture for the first time in spring is St. George's Day, the twenty-third of April, which is not far removed from May Day. See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 324 sqq. As to the bisection of the Celtic year, see the old authority quoted by P. W. Joyce, The Social History of Ancient Ireland (London, 1903), ii. 390: “The whole year was [originally] divided into two parts—Summer from 1st May to 1st November, and Winter from 1st November to 1st May.” On this subject compare (Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Heathendom (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 460, 514 sqq.; id., Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx (Oxford, 1901), i. 315 sqq.; J. A. MacCulloch, in Dr. James Hastings's Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, iii. (Edinburgh, 1910) p. 80.

568.

See below, p. 225.

569.

Above, pp. 146 sqq.; The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 59 sqq.

570.

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Folk-lore, Manx and Welsh (Oxford, 1901), i. 316, 317 sq.; J. A. MacCulloch, in Dr. James Hastings's Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, iii. (Edinburgh, 1910) s.v. “Calendar,” p. 80, referring to Kelly, English and Manx Dictionary (Douglas, 1866), s.v. “Blein.” Hogmanay is the popular Scotch name for the last day of the year. See Dr. J. Jamieson, Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, New Edition (Paisley, 1879-1882), ii. 602 sq.

571.

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx, i. 316 sq.

572.

Above, p. 139.

573.

See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 309-318. As I have there pointed out, the Catholic Church succeeded in altering the date of the festival by one day, but not in changing the character of the festival. All Souls' Day is now the second instead of the first of November. But we can hardly doubt that the Saints, who have taken possession of the first of November, wrested it from the Souls of the Dead, the original proprietors. After all, the Saints are only one particular class of the Souls of the Dead; so that the change which the Church effected, no doubt for the purpose of disguising the heathen character of the festival, is less great than appears at first sight.

574.

In Wales “it was firmly believed in former times that on All Hallows' Eve the spirit of a departed person was to be seen at midnight on every cross-road and on every stile” (Marie Trevelyan, Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales, London, 1909, p. 254).

575.

E. J. Guthrie, Old Scottish Customs (London and Glasgow, 1885), p. 68.

576.

A. Goodrich-Freer, “More Folk-lore from the Hebrides,” Folk-lore, xiii. (1902) p. 53.

577.

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Heathendom (London and Edinburgh, 1888), p. 516.

578.

P. W. Joyce, A Social History of Ancient Ireland (London, 1903), i. 264 sq., ii. 556.

579.

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, p. 516.

580.

Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 61 sq.

581.

Ch. Rogers, Social Life in Scotland (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. 258-260.

582.

Douglas Hyde, Beside the Fire, a Collection of Irish Gaelic Folk Stories (London, 1890), pp. 104, 105, 121-128.

583.

P. W. Joyce, Social History of Ancient Ireland, i. 229.

584.

Marie Trevelyan, Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales (London, 1909), p. 254.

585.

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, pp. 514 sq. In order to see the apparitions all you had to do was to run thrice round the parish church and then peep through the key-hole of the door. See Marie Trevelyan, op. cit. p. 254; J. C. Davies, Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 77.

586.

Miss E. J. Guthrie, Old Scottish Customs (London and Glasgow, 1885), p. 75.

587.

Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1902), p. 282.

588.

Thomas Pennant, “Tour in Scotland, and Voyage to the Hebrides in 1772,” in John Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, iii. (London, 1809) pp. 383 sq. In quoting the passage I have corrected what seem to be two misprints.

589.

John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre, Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, edited by Alexander Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 437 sq. This account was written in the eighteenth century.

590.

Rev. James Robertson, Parish minister of Callander, in Sir John Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland, xi. (Edinburgh, 1794), pp. 621 sq.

591.

Rev. Dr. Thomas Bisset, in Sir John Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland, v. (Edinburgh, 1793) pp. 84 sq.

592.

Miss E. J. Guthrie, Old Scottish Customs (London and Glasgow, 1885), p. 67.

593.

James Napier, Folk Lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland within this Century (Paisley, 1879), p. 179.

594.

J. G. Frazer, “Folk-lore at Balquhidder,” The Folk-lore Journal, vi. (1888) p. 270.

595.

Rev. Walter Gregor, Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland (London, 1881), pp. 167 sq.

596.

Rev. A. Johnstone, as to the parish of Monquhitter, in Sir John Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland, xxi. (Edinburgh, 1799) pp. 145 sq.

597.

A. Macdonald, “Some former Customs of the Royal Parish of Crathie, Scotland,” Folk-lore, xviii. (1907) p. 85. The writer adds: “In this way the ‘faulds’ were purged of evil spirits.” But it does not appear whether this expresses the belief of the people or only the interpretation of the writer.

598.

Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 282 sq.

599.

Robert Burns, Hallowe'en, with the poet's note; Rev. Walter Gregor, op. cit. p. 84; Miss E. J. Guthrie, op. cit. p. 69; Rev. J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 287.

600.

R. Burns, l.c.; Rev. Walter Gregor, l.c.; Miss E. J. Guthrie, op. cit. pp. 70 sq.; Rev. J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 286.

601.

R. Burns, l.c.; Rev. W. Gregor, l.c.; Miss E. J. Guthrie, op. cit. p. 73; Rev. J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 285; A. Goodrich-Freer, “More Folklore from the Hebrides,” Folk-lore, xiii. (1902) pp. 54 sq.

602.

R. Burns, l.c.; Rev. W. Gregor, op. cit. p. 85; Miss E. J. Guthrie, op. cit. p. 71; Rev. J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 285. According to the last of these writers, the winnowing had to be done in the devil's name.

603.

R. Burns, l.c.; Rev. W. Gregor, l.c.; Miss E. J. Guthrie, op. cit. p. 72; Rev. J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 286; A. Goodrich-Freer, “More Folklore from the Hebrides,” Folk-lore, xiii. (1902) p. 54.

604.

Rev. J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 283.

605.

Rev. J. G. Campbell, op. cit. pp. 283 sq.; A. Goodrich-Freer, l.c.

606.

Rev. J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 284.

607.

R. Burns, l.c.; Rev. W. Gregor, op. cit. p. 85; Miss E. J. Guthrie, op. cit. p. 70; Rev. J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 284. Where nuts were not to be had, peas were substituted.

608.

Rev. J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 284.

609.

Rev. J. G. Campbell, l.c. According to my recollection of Hallowe'en customs observed in my boyhood at Helensburgh, in Dumbartonshire, another way was to stir the floating apples and then drop a fork on them as they bobbed about in the water. Success consisted in pinning one of the apples with the fork.

610.

R. Burns, l.c.; Rev. W. Gregor, op. cit. pp. 85 sq.; Miss E. J Guthrie, op. cit. pp. 72 sq.; Rev. J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 287.

611.

R. Burns, l.c.; Rev. W. Gregor, op. cit. p. 85; Miss E. J. Guthrie, op. cit. pp. 69 sq.; Rev. J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 285. It is the last of these writers who gives what may be called the Trinitarian form of the divination.

612.

Miss E. J. Guthrie, Old Scottish Customs (London and Glasgow, 1885), pp. 74 sq.

613.

A. Goodrich-Freer, “More Folk-lore from the Hebrides,” Folk-lore, xiii. (1902) p. 55.

614.

Pennant's manuscript, quoted by J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1882-1883), i. 389 sq.

615.

Sir Richard Colt Hoare, The Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales a.d. MCLXXXVIII. by Giraldus de Barri (London, 1806), ii. 315; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 390. The passage quoted in the text occurs in one of Hoare's notes on the Itinerary. The dipping for apples, burning of nuts, and so forth, are mentioned also by Marie Trevelyan, Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales (London, 1909), pp. 253, 255.

616.

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Heathendom (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 515 sq. As to the Hallowe'en bonfires in Wales compare J. C. Davies, Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 77.

617.

See above, p. 183.

618.

See above, p. 231.

619.

Marie Trevelyan, Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales (London, 1909), pp. 254 sq.

620.

(General) Charles Vallancey, Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicis, iii. (Dublin, 1786), pp. 459-461.

621.

Miss A. Watson, quoted by A. C. Haddon, “A Batch of Irish Folk-lore,” Folk-lore, iv. (1893) pp. 361 sq.

622.

Leland L. Duncan, “Further Notes from County Leitrim,” Folk-lore, v. (1894) pp. 195-197.

623.

H. J. Byrne, “All Hallows Eve and other Festivals in Connaught,” Folk-lore, xviii. (1907) pp. 437 sq.

624.

Joseph Train, Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 123; (Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx (Oxford, 1901), i. 315 sqq.

625.

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx (Oxford, 1901), i. 318-321.

626.

John Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, Lancashire Folk-lore (Manchester and London, 1882), pp. 3 sq.

627.

J. Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, op. cit. p. 140.

628.

Annie Milner, in William Hone's Year Book (London, preface dated January, 1832), coll. 1276-1279 (letter dated June, 1831); R. T. Hampson, Medii Acvi Kalendarium (London, 1841), i. 365; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), p. 395.

629.

County Folk-lore, vol. iv. Northumberland, collected by M. C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 78. Compare W. Henderson, Notes on the Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England (London, 1879), pp. 96 sq.

630.

Baron Dupin, in Mémoires publiées par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, iv. (1823) p. 108.

631.

The evidence for the solar origin of Christmas is given in Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp 254-256.

632.

For the various names (Yu-batch, Yu-block, Yule-log, etc.) see Francis Grose, Provincial Glossary, New Edition (London, 1811), p. 141; Joseph Wright, The English Dialect Dictionary (London, 1898-1905), vi. 593, s.v. “Yule.”

633.

“I am pretty confident that the Yule block will be found, in its first use, to have been only a counterpart of the Midsummer fires, made within doors because of the cold weather at this winter solstice, as those in the hot season, at the summer one, are kindled in the open air” (John Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain, London, 1882-1883, i. 471). His opinion is approved by W. Mannhardt (Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme, p. 236).

634.

“Et arborem in nativitate domini ad festivum ignem suum adducendam esse dicebat” (quoted by Jacob Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 522).

635.

Montanus, Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube (Iserlohn, n.d.), p. 12. The Sieg and Lahn are two rivers of Central Germany, between Siegen and Marburg.

636.

J. H. Schmitz, Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 4.

637.

Adalbert Kuhn, Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen (Leipsic, 1859), ii. § 319, pp. 103 sq.

638.

A. Kuhn, op. cit. ii. § 523, p. 187.

639.

August Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 172.

640.

E. Hoffmann-Krayer, Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes (Zurich, 1913), pp. 108 sq.

641.

Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Calendrier Belge (Brussels, 1861-1862), ii. 326 sq. Compare J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie (Göttingen, 1852-1858), i. 117.

642.

J. B. Thiers, Traité des Superstitions5 (Paris, 1741), i. 302 sq.; Eugène Cortet, Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses (Paris, 1867), pp. 266 sq.

643.

J. B. Thiers, Traité des Superstitions (Paris, 1679), p 323.

644.

Aubin-Louis Millin, Voyage dans les Départements du Midi de la France (Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 336 sq. The fire so kindled was called caco fuech.

645.

Alfred de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 151 sq. The three festivals during which the Yule log is expected to burn are probably Christmas Day (December 25th), St. Stephen's Day (December 26th), and St. John the Evangelist's Day (December 27th). Compare J. L. M. Noguès, Les Mœurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis (Saintes, 1891), pp. 45-47. According to the latter writer, in Saintonge it was the mistress of the house who blessed the Yule log, sprinkling salt and holy water on it; in Poitou it was the eldest male who officiated. The log was called the cosse de Nô.

646.

Laisnel de Salle, Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France (Paris, 1875), i. 1-3.

647.

Jules Lecœur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 291. The author speaks of the custom as still practised in out-of-the-way villages at the time when he wrote. The usage of preserving the remains of the Yule-log (called tréfouet) in Normandy is mentioned also by Melle Amélie Bosquet, La Nortnandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse (Paris and Rouen, 1845), p. 294.

648.

A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 256.

649.

Paul Sébillot, Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne (Paris, 1886), pp. 217 sq.

650.

Albert Meyrac, Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes (Charleville, 1890), pp. 96 sq.

651.

See above, p. 251.

652.

Lerouze, in Mémoires de l'Academie Celtique, iii. (1809) p. 441, quoted by J. Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1882-1883), i. 469 note.

653.

L. F. Sauvé, Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), pp. 370 sq.

654.

Charles Beauquier, Les Mois en Franche-Comté (Paris, 1900), p. 183.

655.

A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 302 sq.

656.

John Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (London, 1882-1883), i. 467.

657.

J. Brand, op. cit. i. 455; The Denham Tracts, edited by Dr. James Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 25 sq.

658.

Herrick, Hesperides, “Ceremonies for Christmasse”: “Come, bring with a noise, My merrie merrie boyes, The Christmas log to the firing; ... With the last yeeres brand Light the new block.” And, again, in his verses, “Ceremonies for Candlemasse Day”: “Kindle the Christmas brand, and then Till sunne-set let it burne; Which quencht, then lay it up agen, Till Christmas next returne. Part must be kept, wherewith to teend The Christmas log next yeare; And where 'tis safely kept, the fiend Can do no mischiefe there.” See The Works of Robert Herrick (Edinburgh, 1823), vol. ii. pp. 91, 124. From these latter verses it seems that the Yule log was replaced on the fire on Candlemas (the second of February).

659.

Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore (London, 1883), p. 398 note 2. See also below, pp. 257, 258, as to the Lincolnshire, Herefordshire, and Welsh practice.

660.

Francis Grose, Provincial Glossary, Second Edition (London, 1811), pp. 141 sq.; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), p. 466.

661.

County Folk-lore, vol. iv. Northumberland, collected by M. C. Balfour and edited by Northcote W. Thomas (London, 1904), p. 79.

662.

County Folk-lore, vol. ii. North Riding of Yorkshire, York and the Ainsty, collected and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1901), pp. 273, 274, 275 sq.

663.

County Folk-lore, vol. vi. East Riding of Yorkshire, collected and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1912), pp. 23, 118, compare p. 114.

664.

John Aubrey, Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme (London, 1881), p. 5.

665.

County Folk-lore, vol. v. Lincolnshire, collected by Mrs. Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 219. Elsewhere in Lincolnshire the Yule-log seems to have been called the Yule-clog (op. cit. pp. 215, 216).

666.

Mrs. Samuel Chandler (Sarah Whateley), quoted in The Folk-lore Journal, i. (1883), pp. 351 sq.

667.

Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore (London, 1883), pp. 397 sq. One of the informants of these writers says (op. cit. p. 399): “In 1845 I was at the Vessons farmhouse, near the Eastbridge Coppice (at the northern end of the Stiperstones). The floor was of flags, an unusual thing in this part. Observing a sort of roadway through the kitchen, and the flags much broken, I enquired what caused it, and was told it was from the horses' hoofs drawing in the ‘Christmas Brund.’ ”

668.

Mrs. Ella Mary Leather, The Folk-lore of Herefordshire (Hereford and London, 1912), p. 109. Compare Miss C. S. Burne, “Herefordshire Notes,” The Folk-lore Journal, iv. (1886) p. 167.

669.

Marie Trevelyan, Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales (London, 1909), p. 28.

670.

“In earlier ages, and even so late as towards the middle of the nineteenth century, the Servian village organisation and the Servian agriculture had yet another distinguishing feature. The dangers from wild beasts in old time, the want of security for life and property during the Turkish rule, or rather misrule, the natural difficulties of the agriculture, more especially the lack in agricultural labourers, induced the Servian peasants not to leave the parental house but to remain together on the family's property. In the same yard, within the same fence, one could see around the ancestral house a number of wooden huts which contained one or two rooms, and were used as sleeping places for the sons, nephews and grandsons and their wives. Men and women of three generations could be often seen living in that way together, and working together the land which was considered as common property of the whole family. This expanded family, remaining with all its branches together, and, so to say, under the same roof, working together, dividing the fruits of their joint labours together, this family and an agricultural association in one, was called Zadrooga (The Association). This combination of family and agricultural association has morally, economically, socially, and politically rendered very important services to the Servians. The headman or chief (called Stareshina) of such family association is generally the oldest male member of the family. He is the administrator of the common property and director of work. He is the executive chairman of the association. Generally he does not give any order without having consulted all the grown-up male members of the Zadrooga” (Chedo Mijatovich, Servia and the Servians, London, 1908, pp. 237 sq.). As to the house-communities of the South Slavs see further Og. M. Utiešenovič, Die Hauskommunionen der Südslaven (Vienna, 1859); F. Demelié, Le Droit Coutumier des Slaves Méridionaux (Paris, 1876), pp. 23 sqq.; F. S. Krauss, Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven (Vienna, 1885), pp. 64 sqq. Since Servia, freed from Turkish oppression, has become a well-regulated European state, with laws borrowed from the codes of France and Germany, the old house-communities have been rapidly disappearing (Chedo Mijatovich, op. cit. p. 240).

671.

Chedo Mijatovich, Servia and the Servians (London, 1908), pp. 98-105.

672.

Baron Rajacsich, Das Leben, die Sitten und Gebräuche der im Kaiserthume Oesterreich lebenden Südslaven (Vienna, 1873), pp. 122-128.

673.

Baron Rajacsich, Das Leben, die Sitten und Gebräuche der im Kaiserthume Oesterreich lebenden Südslaven (Vienna, 1873), pp. 129-131. The Yule log (badnyak) is also known in Bulgaria, where the women place it on the hearth on Christmas Eve. See A. Strausz, Die Bulgaren (Leipsic, 1898), p. 361.

674.

M. Edith Durham, High Albania (London, 1909), p. 129.

675.

R. F. Kaindl, Die Huzulen (Vienna, 1894) p. 71.

676.

See above, pp. 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 258. Similarly at Candlemas people lighted candles in the churches, then took them home and kept them, and thought that by lighting them at any time they could keep off thunder, storm, and tempest. See Barnabe Googe, The Popish Kingdom (reprinted London, 1880), p. 48 verso.

677.

See above, pp. 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 263.

678.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 356 sqq.

679.

See above, pp. 248, 249, 250, 251, 264.

680.

August Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), pp. 171 sq.

681.

Jules Lecœur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 289 sq.

682.

Joseph Train, Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 124, referring to Cregeen's Manx Dictionary, p. 67.

683.

R. Chambers, The Book of Days (London and Edinburgh, 1886), ii. 789-791, quoting The Banffshire Journal; Miss C. F. Gordon Cumming, In the Hebrides (London, 1883), p. 226; Miss E. J. Guthrie, Old Scottish Customs (London and Glasgow, 1885), pp. 223-225; Ch. Rogers, Social Life in Scotland (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. 244 sq.; The Folk-lore Journal, vii. (1889) pp. 11-14, 46. Miss Gordon Cumming and Miss Guthrie say that the burning of the Clavie took place upon Yule Night; but this seems to be a mistake.

684.

Caesar, De bello Gallico, vii. 23.

685.

Hugh W. Young, F.S.A. Scot., Notes on the Ramparts of Burghead as revealed by recent Excavations (Edinburgh, 1892), pp. 3 sqq.; Notes on further Excavations at Burghead (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 7 sqq. These papers are reprinted from the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, vols. xxv., xxvii. Mr. Young concludes as follows: “It is proved that the fort at Burghead was raised by a people skilled in engineering; who used square-headed nails, axes and chisels of iron; who shot balista stones over 20 lbs. in weight; and whose daily food was the bos longifrons. A people who made paved roads, and sunk artesian wells, and used Roman beads and pins. The riddle of Burghead should not now be very difficult to read” (Notes on further Excavations at Burghead, pp. 14 sq.). For a loan of Mr. Young's pamphlets I am indebted to the kindness of Sheriff-Substitute David J. Mackenzie of Kilmarnock.

686.

Robert Cowie, M.A., M.D., Shetland, Descriptive and Historical (Aberdeen, 1871), pp. 127 sq.; County Folk-lore, vol. iii. Orkney and Shetland Islands, collected by G. F. Black and edited by Northcote W. Thomas (London, 1903), pp. 203 sq. A similar celebration, known as Up-helly-a', takes place at Lerwick on the 29th of January, twenty-four days after Old Christmas. See The Scapegoat, pp. 167-169. Perhaps the popular festival of Up-helly-a' has absorbed some of the features of the Christmas Eve celebration.

687.

Thomas Hyde, Historia Religionis veterum Persarum (Oxford, 1700), pp. 255-257.

688.

On the need-fire see Jacob Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 501 sqq.; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie (Göttingen and Leipsic, 1852-1857), i. 116 sq., ii. 378 sqq.; Adalbert Kuhn, Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks2 (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 41 sqq.; Walter K. Kelly, Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore (London, 1863), pp. 48 sqq.; W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme (Berlin, 1875), pp. 518 sqq.; Charles Elton, Origins of English History (London, 1882), pp. 293 sqq.; Ulrich Jahn, Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht (Breslau, 1884), pp. 26 sqq. Grimm would derive the name need-fire (German, niedfyr, nodfyr, nodfeur, nothfeur) from need (German, noth), “necessity,” so that the phrase need-fire would mean “a forced fire.” This is the sense attached to it in Lindenbrog's glossary on the capitularies, quoted by Grimm, op. cit. i. p. 502: “Eum ergo ignem nodfeur et nodfyr, quasi necessarium ignem vocant.” C. L. Rochholz would connect need with a verb nieten “to churn,” so that need-fire would mean “churned fire.” See C. L. Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch (Berlin, 1867), ii. 149 sq. This interpretation is confirmed by the name ankenmilch bohren, which is given to the need-fire in some parts of Switzerland. See E. Hoffmann-Krayer, “Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen Volksbrauch,” Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde, xi. (1907) p. 245.

689.

“Illos sacrilegos ignes, quos niedfyr vocant,” quoted by J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 502; R. Andree, Braunschweiger Volkskunde (Brunswick, 1896), p. 312.

690.

Indiculus Superstitionum et Paganiarum, No. XV., “De igne fricato de ligno i.e. nodfyr.” A convenient edition of the Indiculus has been published with a commentary by H. A. Saupe (Leipsic, 1891). As to the date of the work, see the editor's introduction, pp. 4 sq.

691.

Karl Lynker, Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen2 (Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), pp. 252 sq., quoting a letter of the mayor (Schultheiss) of Neustadt to the mayor of Marburg dated 12th December 1605.

692.

Bartholomäus Carrichter, Der Teutschen Speisskammer (Strasburg, 1614), Fol. pag. 17 and 18, quoted by C. L. Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch (Berlin, 1867), ii. 148 sq.

693.

Joh. Reiskius, Untersuchung des Notfeuers (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1696), p. 51, quoted by J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 502 sq.; R. Andree, Braunschweiger Volkskunde (Brunswick, 1896), p. 313.

694.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 503 sq.

695.

J. Grimm, op. cit. i. 504.

696.

Adalbert Kuhn, Märkische Sagen und Märchen (Berlin, 1843), p. 369.

697.

Karl Bartsch, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 149-151.

698.

Carl und Theodor Colshorn, Märchen und Sagen (Hanover, 1854), pp. 234-236, from the description of an eye-witness.

699.

Heinrich Pröhle, Harzbilder, Sitten und Gebräuche aus dem Harzgebirge (Leipsic, 1855), pp. 74 sq. The date of this need-fire is not given; probably it was about the middle of the nineteenth century.

700.

R. Andree, Braunschweiger Volkskunde (Brunswick, 1896), pp. 313 sq.

701.

R. Andree, op. cit. pp. 314 sq.

702.

Montanus, Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube (Iserlohn, n.d.), p. 127.

703.

Paul Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 204.

704.

Anton Peter, Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch - Schlesien (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 250.

705.

Alois John, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), p. 209.

706.

C. L. Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch (Berlin, 1867), ii. 149.

707.

E. Hoffmann-Krayer, “Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen Volksbrauch,” Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde, xi. (1907) pp. 244-246.

708.

E. Hoffmann-Krayer, op. cit. p. 246.

709.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 505.

710.

“Old-time Survivals in remote Norwegian Dales,” Folk-lore, xx. (1909) pp. 314, 322 sq. This record of Norwegian folk-lore is translated from a little work Sundalen og Öksendalens Beskrivelse written by Pastor Chr. Glükstad and published at Christiania “about twenty years ago.”

711.

Prof. Vl. Titelbach, “Das heilige Feuer bei den Balkanslaven,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, xiii. (1900) pp. 2 sq. We have seen (above, p. 220) that in Russia the need-fire is, or used to be, annually kindled on the eighteenth of August. As to the need fire in Bulgaria see also below, pp. 284 sq.

712.

F. S. Krauss, “Altslavische Feuergewinnung,” Globus, lix. (1891) p. 318, quoting P. Ljiebenov, Baba Ega (Trnovo, 1887), p. 44.

713.

F. S. Krauss, op. cit. p. 319, quoting Wisla, vol. iv. pp. 1, 244 sqq.

714.

F. S. Krauss, op. cit. p. 318, quoting Oskar Kolberg, in Mazowsze, vol. iv. p. 138.

715.

F. S. Krauss, “Slavische Feuerbohrer,” Globus, lix. (1891) p. 140. The evidence quoted by Dr. Krauss is that of his father, who often told of his experience to his son.

716.

Prof. Vl. Titelbach, “Das heilige Feuer bei den Balkanslaven,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, xiii. (1900) p. 3.

717.

See below, vol. ii. pp. 168 sqq.

718.

Adolf Strausz, Die Bulgaren (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 194-199.

719.

Wissenschaftliche Mittheilungen aus Bosnien und der Hercegovina, redigirt von Moriz Hoernes, iii. (Vienna, 1895) pp. 574 sq.

720.

“Pro fidei divinae integritate servanda recolat lector quod, cum hoc anno in Laodonia pestis grassaretur in pecudes armenti, quam vocant usitate Lungessouth, quidam bestiales, habitu claustrales non animo, docebant idiotas patriae ignem confrictione de lignis educere et simulachrum Priapi statuere, et per haec bestiis succurrere,” quoted by J. M. Kemble, The Saxons in England (London, 1849), i. 358 sq.; A. Kuhn, Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Güttertranks2 (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 43; Ulrich Jahn, Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht (Breslau, 1884) p. 31.

721.

W. G. M. Jones Barker, The Three Days of Wensleydale (London, 1854), pp. 90 sq.; County Folk-lore, vol. ii., North Riding of Yorkshire, York and the Ainsty, collected and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1901), p. 181.

722.

The Denham Tracts, a Collection of Folklore by Michael Aislabie Denham, edited by Dr. James Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 50.

723.

Harry Speight, Tramps and Drives in the Craven Highlands (London, 1895), p. 162. Compare, id., The Craven and North-West Yorkshire Highlands (London, 1892), pp. 206 sq.

724.

J. M. Kemble, The Saxons in England (London, 1849), i. 361 note.

725.

E. Mackenzie, An Historical, Topographical and Descriptive View of the County of Northumberland, Second Edition (Newcastle, 1825), i. 218, quoted in County Folk-lore, vol. iv. Northumberland, collected by M. C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 45. Compare J. T. Brockett, Glossary of North Country Words, p. 147, quoted by Mrs. M. C. Balfour, l.c.: “Need-fire ... an ignition produced by the friction of two pieces of dried wood. The vulgar opinion is, that an angel strikes a tree, and that the fire is thereby obtained. Need-fire, I am told, is still employed in the case of cattle infected with the murrain. They were formerly driven through the smoke of a fire made of straw, etc.” The first edition of Brockett's Glossary was published in 1825.

726.

W. Henderson, Notes on the Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England and the Borders (London, 1879), pp. 167 sq. Compare County Folk-lore, vol. iv. Northumberland, collected by M. C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 45. Stamfordham is in Northumberland. The vicar's testimony seems to have referred to the first half of the nineteenth century.

727.

M. Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in J. Pinkerton's General Collection of Voyages and Travels, iii. (London, 1809), p. 611. The second edition of Martin's book, which Pinkerton reprints, was published at London in 1716. For John Ramsay's account of the need-fire, see above, pp. 147 sq.

728.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 506, referring to Miss Austin as his authority.

729.

As to the custom of sacrificing one of a plague-stricken herd or flock for the purpose of saving the rest, see below, pp. 300 sqq.

730.

John Jamieson, Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, New Edition, revised by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson, iii. (Paisley, 1880) pp. 349 sq., referring to “Agr. Surv. Caithn., pp. 200, 201.”

731.

R. C. Maclagan, “Sacred Fire,” Folk-lore, ix. (1898) pp. 280 sq. As to the fire-drill see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 207 sqq.

732.

W. Grant Stewart, The Popular Superstitions and Festive Amusements of the Highlanders of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1823), pp. 214-216; Walter K. Kelly, Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore (London, 1863), pp. 53 sq.

733.

Alexander Carmichael, Carmina Gadelica (Edinburgh, 1900), ii. 340 sq.

734.

See above, pp. 154, 156, 157, 159 sq.

735.

Census of India, 1911, vol. xiv. Punjab, Part i. Report, by Pandit Harikishan Kaul (Lahore, 1912), p. 302. So in the north-east of Scotland “those who were born with their feet first possessed great power to heal all kinds of sprains, lumbago, and rheumatism, either by rubbing the affected part, or by trampling on it. The chief virtue lay in the feet. Those who came into the world in this fashion often exercised their power to their own profit.” See Rev. Walter Gregor, Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland (London, 1881), pp. 45 sq.

736.

Rev. Walter Gregor, Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland (London, 1881), p. 186. The fumigation of the byres with juniper is a charm against witchcraft. See J. G. Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1902), p. 11. The “quarter-ill” is a disease of cattle, which affects the animals only in one limb or quarter. “A very gross superstition is observed by some people in Angus, as an antidote against this ill. A piece is cut out of the thigh of one of the cattle that has died of it. This they hang up within the chimney, in order to preserve the rest of the cattle from being infected. It is believed that as long as it hangs there, it will prevent the disease from approaching the place. It is therefore carefully preserved; and in case of the family removing, transported to the new farm, as one of their valuable effects. It is handed down from one generation to another” (J. Jamieson, Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, revised by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson, iii. 575, s.v. “Quarter-ill”). See further Rev. W. Gregor, op. cit. pp. 186 sq.: “The fore-legs of one of the animals that had died were cut off a little above the knee, and hung over the fire-place in the kitchen. It was thought sufficient by some if they were placed over the door of the byre, in the ‘crap o' the wa'.’ Sometimes the heart and part of the liver and lungs were cut out, and hung over the fireplace instead of the fore-feet. Boiling them was at times substituted for hanging them over the hearth.” Compare W. Henderson, Notes on the Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England and the Borders (London, 1879), p. 167: “A curious aid to the rearing of cattle came lately to the knowledge of Mr. George Walker, a gentleman of the city of Durham. During an excursion of a few miles into the country, he observed a sort of rigging attached to the chimney of a farmhouse well known to him, and asked what it meant. The good wife told him that they had experienced great difficulty that year in rearing their calves; the poor little creatures all died off, so they had taken the leg and thigh of one of the dead calves, and hung it in a chimney by a rope, since which they had not lost another calf.” In the light of facts cited below (pp. 315 sqq.) we may conjecture that the intention of cutting off the legs or cutting out the heart, liver, and lungs of the animals and hanging them up or boiling them, is by means of homoeopathic magic to inflict corresponding injuries on the witch who cast the fatal spell on the cattle.

737.

The Mirror, 24th June, 1826, quoted by J. M. Kemble, The Saxons in England (London, 1849), i. 360 note 2.

738.

Leland L. Duncan, “Fairy Beliefs and other Folklore Notes from County Leitrim,” Folk-lore, vii. (1896) pp. 181 sq.

739.

(Sir) Edward B. Tylor, Researches into the Early History of Mankind, Third Edition (London, 1878), pp. 237 sqq.; The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 207 sqq.

740.

For some examples of such extinctions, see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 261 sqq., 267 sq.; Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, i. 311, ii. 73 sq.; and above, pp. 124 sq., 132-139. The reasons for extinguishing fires ceremonially appear to vary with the occasion. Sometimes the motive seems to be a fear of burning or at least singeing a ghost, who is hovering invisible in the air; sometimes it is apparently an idea that a fire is old and tired with burning so long, and that it must be relieved of the fatiguing duty by a young and vigorous flame.

741.

Above, pp. 147, 154. The same custom appears to have been observed in Ireland. See above, p. 158.

742.

J. N. B. Hewitt, “New Fire among the Iroquois,” The American Anthropologist, ii. (1889) p. 319.

743.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 507.

744.

See above, p. 290.

745.

William Hone, Every-day Book (London, preface dated 1827), i. coll. 853 sq. (June 24th), quoting Hitchin's History of Cornwall.

746.

Hunt, Romances and Drolls of the West of England, 1st series, p. 237, quoted by W. Henderson, Notes on the Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England and the Borders (London, 1879), p. 149. Compare J. G. Dalyell, The Darker Superstitions of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1834), p. 184: “Here also may be found a solution of that recent expedient so ignorantly practised in the neighbouring kingdom, where one having lost many of his herd by witchcraft, as he concluded, burnt a living calf to break the spell and preserve the remainder.”

747.

Marie Trevelyan, Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales (London, 1909), p. 23.

748.

W. Henderson, op. cit. pp. 148 sq.

749.

Rev. Walter Gregor, Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland (London, 1881), p. 186.

750.

R. N. Worth, History of Devonshire, Second Edition (London, 1886), p. 339. The diabolical nature of the toad probably explains why people in Herefordshire think that if you wear a toad's heart concealed about your person you can steal to your heart's content without being found out. A suspected thief was overheard boasting, “They never catches me: and they never ooll neither. I allus wears a toad's heart round my neck, I does.” See Mrs. Ella M. Leather, in Folk-lore, xxiv. (1913) p. 238.

751.

Above, p. 301.

752.

Robert Hunt, Popular Romances of the West of England, Third Edition (London, 1881), p. 320. The writer does not say where this took place; probably it was in Cornwall or Devonshire.

753.

Rev. Walter Gregor, Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland (London, 1881), p. 184.

754.

County Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, No. 2, Suffolk, collected and edited by the Lady Eveline Camilla Gurdon (London, 1893), pp. 190 sq., quoting Some Materials for the History of Wherstead by F. Barham Zincke (Ipswich, 1887), p. 168.

755.

County Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, No. 2, Suffolk, p. 191, referring to Murray's Handbook for Essex, Suffolk, etc., p. 109.

756.

(Sir) John Rhys, “Manx Folk-lore and Superstitions,” Folk-lore, ii. (1891) pp. 300-302; repeated in his Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx (Oxford, 1901), i. 306 sq. Sir John Rhys does not doubt that the old woman saw, as she said, a live sheep being burnt on old May-day; but he doubts whether it was done as a sacrifice. He adds: “I have failed to find anybody else in Andreas or Bride, or indeed in the whole island, who will now confess to having ever heard of the sheep sacrifice on old May-day.” However, the evidence I have adduced of a custom of burnt sacrifice among English rustics tends to confirm the old woman's statement, that the burning of the live sheep which she witnessed was not an act of wanton cruelty but a sacrifice performed for the public good.

757.

(Sir) John Rhys, “Manx Folk-lore and Superstitions,” Folk-lore, ii. (1891) pp. 299 sq.; id., Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx (Oxford, 1901), i. 304 sq. We have seen that by burning the blood of a bewitched bullock a farmer expected to compel the witch to appear. See above, p. 303.

758.

Olaus Magnus, Historia de Gentium Septentrionalium Conditionibus, lib xviii. cap. 47, p. 713 (ed. Bâle, 1567).

759.

Collin de Plancy, Dictionnaire Infernal (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 473 sq., referring to Boguet.

760.

Collin de Plancy, op. cit. iii. 473.

761.

Felix Chapiseau, Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche (Paris, 1902), i. 239 sq. The same story is told in Upper Brittany. See Paul Sébillot, Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne (Paris, 1882), i. 292. It is a common belief that a man who has once been transformed into a were-wolf must remain a were-wolf for seven years unless blood is drawn from him in his animal shape, upon which he at once recovers his human form and is delivered from the bondage and misery of being a were-wolf. See F. Chapiseau, op. cit. i. 218-220; Amélie Bosquet, La Normandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse (Paris and Rouen, 1845), p. 233. On belief in were-wolves in general, see W. Hertz, Der Werwolf (Stuttgart, 1862); J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 915 sqq.; (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, Primitive Culture2 (London, 1873), i. 308 sqq.; R. Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche (Stuttgart, 1878), pp. 62-80. In North Germany it is believed that a man can turn himself into a wolf by girding himself with a strap made out of a wolf's hide. Some say that the strap must have nine, others say twelve, holes and a buckle; and that according to the number of the hole through which the man inserts the tongue of the buckle will be the length of time of his transformation. For example, if he puts the tongue of the buckle through the first hole, he will be a wolf for one hour; if he puts it through the second, he will be a wolf for two days; and so on, up to the last hole, which entails a transformation for a full year. But by putting off the girdle the man can resume his human form. The time when were-wolves are most about is the period of the Twelve Nights between Christmas and Epiphany; hence cautious German farmers will not remove the dung from the cattle-stalls at that season for fear of attracting the were-wolves to the cattle. See Adalbert Kuhn, Märkische Sagen und Märchen (Berlin, 1843), p. 375; Ulrich Jahn, Volkssagen aus Pommern und Rügen (Stettin, 1886), pp. 384, 386, Nos. 491, 495. Down to the time of Elizabeth it was reported that in the county of Tipperary certain men were annually turned into wolves. See W. Camden, Britain, translated into English by Philemon Holland (London, 1610), “Ireland,” p. 83.

762.

J. J. M. de Groot, The Religious System of China, v. (Leyden, 1907) P. 548.

763.

A. C. Kruijt, “De weerwolf bij de Toradja's van Midden-Celebes,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xli. (1899) pp. 548-551, 557-560.

764.

A. C. Kruijt, op. cit. pp. 552 sq.

765.

A. C. Kruijt, op. cit. pp. 553. For more evidence of the belief in were-wolves, or rather in were-animals of various sorts, particularly were-tigers, in the East Indies, see J. J. M. de Groot, “De Weertijger in onze Kolonien en op het oostaziatische Vasteland,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, xlix. (1898) pp. 549-585; G. P. Rouffaer, “Matjan Gadoengan,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, l. (1899) pp. 67-75; J. Knebel, “De Weertijger op Midden-Java, den Javaan naverteld,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xli. (1899) pp. 568-587; L. M. F. Plate, “Bijdrage tot de kennis van de lykanthropie bij de Sasaksche bevolking in Oost-Lombok,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, liv. (1912) pp. 458-469; G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” Verspreide Geschriften (The Hague, 1912), iii. 25-30.

766.

Ernst Marno, Reisen im Gebiete des blauen und weissen Nil (Vienna, 1874), pp. 239 sq.

767.

Petronius, Sat. 61 sq. (pp. 40 sq., ed. Fr. Buecheler,3 Berlin, 1882). The Latin word for a were-wolf (versipellis) is expressive: it means literally “skin-shifter,” and is equally appropriate whatever the particular animal may be into which the wizard transforms himself. It is to be regretted that we have no such general term in English. The bright moonlight which figures in some of these were-wolf stories is perhaps not a mere embellishment of the tale but has its own significance; for in some places it is believed that the transformation of were-wolves into their bestial shape takes place particularly at full moon. See A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 99, 157; J. L. M. Noguès, Les Mœurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis (Saintes, 1891), p. 141.

768.

J. G. Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1902), p. 6: “In carrying out their unhallowed cantrips, witches assumed various shapes. They became gulls, cormorants, ravens, rats, mice, black sheep, swelling waves, whales, and very frequently cats and hares.” To this list of animals into which witches can turn themselves may be added horses, dogs, wolves, foxes, pigs, owls, magpies, wild geese, ducks, serpents, toads, lizards, flies, wasps, and butterflies. See A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 150 § 217; L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1867), i. 327 § 220; Ulrich Jahn, Hexenwesen und Zauberei in Pommern (Breslau, 1886), p. 7. In his Topography of Ireland (chap. 19), a work completed in 1187 a.d., Giraldus Cambrensis records that “it has also been a frequent complaint, from old times as well as in the present, that certain hags in Wales, as well as in Ireland and Scotland, changed themselves into the shape of hares, that, sucking teats under this counterfeit form, they might stealthily rob other people's milk.” See The Historical Works of Giraldus Cambrensis, revised and edited by Thomas Wright (London, 1887), p. 83.

769.

The Folk-lore Journal, iv. (1886) p. 266; Collin de Plancy, Dictionnaire Infernal (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 475; J. L. M. Noguès, Les Mœurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis (Saintes, 1891), p. 141. In Scotland the cut was known as “scoring above the breath.” It consisted of two incisions made crosswise on the witch's forehead, and was “confided in all throughout Scotland as the most powerful counter-charm.” See Sir Walter Scott, Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft (London, 1884), p. 272; J. G. Dalyell, The Darker Superstitions of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1834), pp. 531 sq.; M. M. Banks, “Scoring a Witch above the Breath,” Folk-lore, xxiii. (1912) p. 490.

770.

J. L. M. Noguès, l.c.; L. F. Sauvé, Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), p. 187.

771.

M. Abeghian, Der armenische Volksglaube (Leipsic, 1899), p. 117. The wolf-skin is supposed to fall down from heaven and to return to heaven after seven years, if the were-wolf has not been delivered from her unhappy state in the meantime by the burning of the skin.

772.

J. G. Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1902), p. 8; compare A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 150 § 217. Some think that the sixpence should be crooked. See Rev. W. Gregor, Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland (London, 1881), pp. 71 sq., 128; County Folk-lore, vol. v. Lincolnshire, collected by Mrs. Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 75.

773.

J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 30.

774.

J. G. Campbell, op. cit. p. 33.

775.

(Sir) Edward B. Tylor, Primitive Culture2 (London, 1873), i. 314.

776.

Joseph Glanvil, Saducismus Triumphatus or Full and Plain Evidence concerning Witches and Apparitions (London, 1681), Part ii. p. 205.

777.

Rev. J. C. Atkinson, Forty Years in a Moorland Parish (London, 1891), pp. 82-84.

778.

County Folk-lore, vol. v. Lincolnshire, collected by Mrs. Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), pp. 79, 80.

779.

Leland L. Duncan, “Folk-lore Gleanings from County Leitrim,” Folk-lore, iv. (1893) pp. 183 sq.

780.

L. F. Sauvé, Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), p. 176.

781.

L. F. Sauvé, op. cit. pp. 176 sq.

782.

Ernst Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 184 sq., No. 203.

783.

E. Meier, op. cit. pp. 191 sq., No. 215. A similar story of the shoeing of a woman in the shape of a horse is reported from Silesia. See R. Kühnau, Schlesische Sagen (Berlin, 1910-1913), iii. pp. 27 sq., No. 1380.

784.

R. Kühnau, Schlesische Sagen (Berlin, 1910-1913), iii. pp. 23 sq., No. 1375. Compare id., iii. pp. 28 sq., No. 1381.

785.

See for example L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1867), i. pp. 328, 329, 334, 339; W. von Schulenburg, Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche aus dem Spreewald (Leipsic, 1880), pp. 164, 165 sq.; H. Pröhle, Harzsagen (Leipsic, 1859), i. 100 sq. The belief in such things is said to be universal among the ignorant and superstitious in Germany. See A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 150, § 217. In Wales, also, “the possibility of injuring or marking the witch in her assumed shape so deeply that the bruise remained a mark on her in her natural form was a common belief” (J. Ceredig Davies, Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales, Aberystwyth, 1911, p. 243). For Welsh stories of this sort, see J. Ceredig Davies, l.c.; Rev. Elias Owen, Welsh Folk-lore (Oswestry and Wrexham, n.d., preface dated 1896), pp. 228 sq.; M. Trevelyan, Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales (London, 1909), p. 214.

786.

L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1867), i. p. 361, § 239.

787.

Marie Trevelyan, Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales (London, 1909), p. 210.

788.

L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1867), i. p. 358, § 238.

789.

L. Strackerjan, op. cit. i. p. 360, § 238e.

790.

“The ‘Witch-burning’ at Clonmell,” Folk-lore, vi. (1895) pp. 373-384. The account there printed is based on the reports of the judicial proceedings before the magistrates and the judge, which were published in The Irish Times for March 26th, 27th, and 28th, April 2nd, 3rd, 6th, and 8th, and July 6th, 1895.

791.

John Graham Dalyell, The Darker Superstitions of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1834), p. 185. In this passage “quick” is used in the old sense of “living,” as in the phrase “the quick and the dead.” Nois is “nose,” hoill is “hole,” quhilk (whilk) is “which,” and be is “by.”

792.

J. G. Dalyell, op. cit. p. 186. Bestiall = animals; seik = sick; calling = driving; guidis = cattle.

793.

John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre, Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, edited by Alexander Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 446 sq. As to the custom of cutting off the leg of a diseased animal and hanging it up in the house, see above, p. 296, note 1.

794.

(Sir) Arthur Mitchell, A.M., M.D., On Various Superstitions in the North-West Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1862), p. 12 (reprinted from the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, vol. iv.).

795.

County Folk-lore, vol. v. Lincolnshire, collected by Mrs. Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 75, quoting Rev. R. M. Heanley, “The Vikings: traces of their Folklore in Marshland,” a paper read before the Viking Club, London, and printed in its Saga-Book, vol. iii. Part i. Jan. 1902. The wicken-tree is the mountain-ash or rowan tree, which is a very efficient, or at all events a very popular protective against witchcraft. See County Folk-lore, vol. v. Lincolnshire, pp. 26 sq., 98 sq.; Mabel Peacock, “The Folklore of Lincolnshire,” Folk-lore, xii. (1901) p. 175; J. G. Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 11 sq.; Rev. Walter Gregor, Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland (London, 1881), p. 188. See further The Scapegoat, pp. 266 sq.

796.

Above, pp. 116 sq., 119, 143, 165, 166, 168 sq., 172.

797.

Above, pp. 116, 117 sq., 119, 141, 143, 161, 162 sq., 163 sq., 166, 173, 191, 201.

798.

W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme (Berlin, 1875), pp. 521 sqq.

799.

E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 44 sqq.; id., The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas (London, 1906-1908), i. 56; id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 93-102.

800.

E. Mogk, “Sitten und Gebräuche im Kreislauf des Jahres,” in R. Wuttke's Sächsische Volkskunde2 (Dresden, 1901), pp. 310 sq.

801.

The Golden Bough, Second Edition (London, 1900), iii. 312: “The custom of leaping over the fire and driving cattle through it may be intended, on the one hand, to secure for man and beast a share of the vital energy of the sun, and, on the other hand, to purge them of all evil influences; for to the primitive mind fire is the most powerful of all purificatory agents”; and again, id. iii. 314: “It is quite possible that in these customs the idea of the quickening power of fire may be combined with the conception of it as a purgative agent for the expulsion or destruction of evil beings, such as witches and the vermin that destroy the fruits of the earth. Certainly the fires are often interpreted in the latter way by the persons who light them; and this purgative use of the element comes out very prominently, as we have seen, in the general expulsion of demons from towns and villages. But in the present class of cases this aspect of fire may be secondary, if indeed it is more than a later misinterpretation of the custom.”

802.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 311 sqq.

803.

See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 254 sqq.

804.

Manilius, Astronom. v. 206 sqq.: “Cum vero in vastos surget Nemeaeus hiatus, Exoriturque Canis, latratque Canicula flammas Et rabit igne suo geminatque incendia solis, Qua subdente facem terris radiosque movente,” etc. Pliny, Naturalis Historia, xviii. 269 sq.: “Exoritur dein post triduum fere ubique confessum inter omnes sidus ingens quod canis ortum vocamus, sole partem primam leonis ingresso. Hoc fit post solstitium XXIII. die. Sentiunt id maria et terrae, multae vero et ferae, ut suis locis diximus. Neque est minor ei veneratio quam descriptis in deos stellis, accenditque solem et magnam aestus obtinet causam.”

805.

Specimens of Bushman Folklore, collected by the late W. H. I. Bleek, Ph.D., and L. C. Lloyd (London, 1911), pp. 339, 341. In quoting the passage I have omitted the brackets which the editors print for the purpose of indicating the words which are implied, but not expressed, in the original Bushman text.

806.

“The sun is a little warm, when this star appears in winter” (Editors of Specimens of Bushman Folklore).

807.

“With the stick that he had held in the fire, moving it up and down quickly” (Editors).

808.

“They take one arm out of the kaross, thereby exposing one shoulder blade to the sun” (Editors).

809.

See above, pp. 161, 162 sq. On the wheel as an emblem of the sun, see J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 585; A. Kuhn, Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks2 (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 45 sqq.; H. Gaidoz, “Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,” Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 14 sqq.; William Simpson, The Buddhist Praying Wheel (London, 1896), pp. 87 sqq. It is a popular Armenian idea that “the body of the sun has the shape of the wheel of a water-mill; it revolves and moves forward. As drops of water sputter from the mill-wheel, so sunbeams shoot out from the spokes of the sun-wheel” (M. Abeghian, Der armenische Volksglaube, Leipsic, 1899, p. 41). In the old Mexican picture-books the usual representation of the sun is “a wheel, often brilliant with many colours, the rays of which are so many blood-stained tongues, by means of which the Sun receives his nourishment” (E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, Oxford, 1892, i. 521).

810.

Above, p. 169.

811.

Ernst Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 225; F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 240; Anton Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 57, 97; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 510.

812.

Compare J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 521; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie (Göttingen und Leipsic, 1852-1857), ii. 389; Adalbert Kuhn, Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks2 (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 41 sq., 47; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 521. Lindenbrog in his Glossary on the Capitularies (quoted by J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 502) expressly says: “The rustics in many parts of Germany, particularly on the festival of St. John the Baptist, wrench a stake from a fence, wind a rope round it, and pull it to and fro till it catches fire. This fire they carefully feed with straw and dry sticks and scatter the ashes over the vegetable gardens, foolishly and superstitiously imagining that in this way the caterpillar can be kept off. They call such a fire nodfeur or nodfyr, that is to say need-fire.”

813.

Above, pp. 144 sq., 147 sq., 155, 169 sq., 175, 177, 179.

814.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 509; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, i. 117; A. Kuhn, Die Herabkunft des Feuers,2 pp. 47 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 521; W. E. Kelly, Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore (London, 1863), p. 49.

815.

A. Kuhn, Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks2 (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 47.

816.

Above, p. 179.

817.

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 240, § 443.

818.

Above, p. 177.

819.

Above, pp. 187 sq.

820.

Above, pp. 279 sq.

821.

Above, p. 188.

822.

Above, p. 159.

823.

Above, p. 116.

824.

Above, p. 201.

825.

L. Decle, Three Years in Savage Africa (London, 1898), pp. 160 sq.

826.

Rev. J. Shooter, The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country (London, 1857), p. 18.

827.

Above, pp. 140, 142.

828.

Above, pp. 119, 165, 166, 173, 203.

829.

Above, p. 140.

830.

Above, p. 121.

831.

Above, pp. 141, 170, 190, 203, 248, 250, 264.

832.

Above, p. 251.

833.

Above, pp. 119, 165, 166, 168, 173, 174.

834.

Above, pp. 118, 163 sq.

835.

Above, p. 201.

836.

Above, p. 203.

837.

Above, p. 250.

838.

Above, pp. 251, 262, 263, 264.

839.

Above, p. 112.

840.

Above, p. 141.

841.

Above, p. 214.

842.

Above, p. 204.

843.

Above, p. 194.

844.

Above, pp. 185, 189; compare p. 174.

845.

Above, p. 166.

846.

Above, pp. 249, 250.

847.

Above, pp. 107, 109, 111, 119; compare pp. 116, 192, 193.

848.

Above, p. 115.

849.

Above, p. 180.

850.

Above, pp. 113, 142, 170, 233. The torches of Demeter, which figure so largely in her myth and on her monuments, are perhaps to be explained by this custom. See Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, i. 57. W. Mannhardt thought (Baumkultus, p. 536) that the torches in the modern European customs are imitations of lightning. At some of their ceremonies the Indians of North-West America imitate lightning by means of pitch-wood torches which are flashed through the roof of the house. See J. G. Swan, quoted by Franz Boas, “The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,” Report of the United States National Museum for 1895 (Washington, 1897), p. 639.

851.

Above, p. 203.

852.

Amélie Bosquet, La Normandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse (Paris and Rouen, 1845), pp. 295 sq.; Jules Lecœur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 126-129. See The Scapegoat, pp. 316 sq.

853.

Br. Jelínek, “Materialen zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens,” Mittheilungen der anthropolog. Gesellschaft in Wien, xxi. (1891) p. 13 note.

854.

Mrs. Bishop, Korea and her Neighbours (London, 1898), ii. 56 sq.

855.

Above, pp. 190 sq.

856.

Above, pp. 178, 205, 206.

857.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 311 sqq.

858.

Above, pp. 108, 109, 116, 118 sq., 121, 148, 154, 156, 157, 159, 160, 170, 171, 174, 175, 176, 180, 183, 185, 188, 232 sq., 245, 252, 253, 280, 292, 293, 295, 297. For more evidence of the use of fire to burn or expel witches on certain days of the year, see The Scapegoat, pp. 158 sqq. Less often the fires are thought to burn or repel evil spirits and vampyres. See above, pp. 146, 170, 172, 202, 252, 282, 285. Sometimes the purpose of the fires is to drive away dragons (above, pp. 161, 195).

859.

Above, pp. 107, 116, 118 sq., 159.

860.

“In short, of all the ills incident to the life of man, none are so formidable as witchcraft, before the combined influence of which, to use the language of an honest man who had himself severely suffered from its effects, the great laird of Grant himself could not stand them if they should fairly yoke upon him” (W. Grant Stewart, The Popular Superstitions and Festive Amusements of the Highlanders of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1823, pp. 202 sq.). “Every misfortune and calamity that took place in the parish, such as ill-health, the death of friends, the loss of stock, and the failure of crops; yea to such a length did they carry their superstition, that even the inclemency of the seasons, were attributed to the influence of certain old women who were supposed to be in league, and had dealings with the Devil. These the common people thought had the power and too often the inclination to injure their property, and torment their persons” (County Folk-lore, vol. v. Lincolnshire, collected by Mrs. Gutch and Mabel Peacock, London, 1908, p. 76). “The county of Salop is no exception to the rule of superstition. The late vicar of a parish on the Clee Hills, startled to find that his parishioners still believed in witchcraft, once proposed to preach a sermon against it, but he was dissuaded from doing so by the parish schoolmaster, who assured him that the belief was so deeply rooted in the people's minds that he would be more likely to alienate them from the Church than to weaken their faith in witchcraft” (Miss C. F. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, London, 1883, p. 145). “Wherever a man or any living creature falls sick, or a misfortune of any kind happens, without any natural cause being discoverable or rather lying on the surface, there in all probability witchcraft is at work. The sudden stiffness in the small of the back, which few people can account for at the time, is therefore called a ‘witch-shot’ and is really ascribed to witchcraft” (L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, Oldenburg, 1867, i. p. 298, § 209). What Sir Walter Scott said less than a hundred years ago is probably still true: “The remains of the superstition sometimes occur; there can be no doubt that the vulgar are still addicted to the custom of scoring above the breath (as it is termed), and other counter-spells, evincing that the belief in witchcraft is only asleep, and might in remote corners be again awakened to deeds of blood” (Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft, London, 1884, p. 272). Compare L. Strackerjan, op. cit. i. p. 340, § 221: “The great power, the malicious wickedness of the witches, cause them to be feared and hated by everybody. The hatred goes so far that still at the present day you may hear it said right out that it is a pity burning has gone out of fashion, for the evil crew deserve nothing else. Perhaps the hatred might find vent yet more openly, if the fear were not so great.”