Footnotes (continued 2)

539.

Frank H. Cushing, “My Adventures in Zuñi,” The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine, May 1883, pp. 45 sq.

540.

Mr. Cushing, indeed, while he admits that the ancestors of the Zuni may have believed in transmigration, says, “Their belief, to-day, however, relative to the future life is spiritualistic.” But the expressions in the text seem to leave no room for doubting that the transmigration into turtles is a living article of Zuni faith.

541.

H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iv. 86. On the totem clans of the Moquis, see J. G. Bourke, Snake-Dance of the Moquis of Arizona (London, 1884), pp. 116 sq., 334 sqq.

542.

For this information I am indebted to the kindness of the late Captain J. G. Bourke, 3rd Cavalry, U.S. Army, author of the work mentioned in the preceding note. In his letter Captain Bourke gave a list of fourteen totem clans of Zuni, which he received on the 20th of May 1881 from Pedro Dino (?), Governor of Zuni.

543.

It should be observed, however, that Mr. Cushing omits to say whether or not the persons who performed the ceremony described by him had the turtle for their totem. If they had not, the ceremony need not have had anything to do with totemism.

544.

See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 301-318.

545.

Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, “The Zuñi Indians,” Twenty-Third Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology (Washington, 1904), pp. 148-162.

546.

B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens (Yokohama), Heft xxii. p. 45.

547.

We are told that the Aino have gods for almost every conceivable object, and that the word kamui “has various shades of meaning, which vary if used before or after another word, and according to the object to which it is applied.” “When the term kamui is applied to good objects, it expresses the quality of usefulness, beneficence, or of being exalted or divine. When applied to supposed evil gods, it indicates that which is most to be feared and dreaded. When applied to devils, reptiles, and evil diseases, it signifies what is most hateful, abominable, and repulsive. When applied as a prefix to animals, fish or fowl, it represents the greatest or fiercest, or the most useful for food or clothing. When applied to persons, it is sometimes expressive of goodness, but more often is a mere title of respect and reverence.” See the Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu of Japan (London, 1892), pp. 245-251; id., The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), pp. 581 sq. Thus the Aino kamui appears to mean nearly the same as the Dacotan wakan, as to which see Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, p. 225, note.

548.

W. Martin Wood, “The Hairy Men of Yesso,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, N.S., iv. (1866) p. 36.

549.

J. J. Rein, Japan (Leipsic, 1881-1886), i. 446.

550.

H. von Siebold, Ethnologische Studien über die Aino auf der Insel Yesso (Berlin, 1881), p. 26.

551.

Miss Isabella L. Bird, Unbeaten Tracks in Japan (new edition, 1885), p. 275.

552.

W. Martin Wood, l.c.

553.

Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, p. 471.

554.

Miss I. L. Bird, op. cit. p. 269.

555.

B. Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 4 (reprinted from Mittheilungen d. deutsch. Gesell. b. S. und S. Ostasiens, Yokohama).

556.

B. Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc., p. 45; W. Joest, in Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1882, p. 188.

557.

W. Martin Wood, l.c.

558.

Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), pp. 476 sq. As to the inao see below, p. 186, note.

559.

Miss I. L. Bird, op. cit. p. 277.

560.

B. Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 15; H. von Siebold, op. cit. p. 26; W. Martin Wood, l.c.; J. J. Rein, Japan, i. 447; Von Brandt, “The Ainos and Japanese,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, iii. (1874) p. 134; Miss Bird, op. cit. pp. 275, 276; Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 495 sq.

561.

B. Scheube, Die Ainos, pp. 15, 16; Von Brandt, l.c.; Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 352-354, 504 sq.

562.

B. Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 16.

563.

Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 8-10. E. Reclus (Nouvelle Géographie Universelle, vii. 755) mentions a (Japanese?) legend which attributes the hairiness of the Ainos to the suckling of their first ancestor by a bear. But in the absence of other evidence this is no proof of totemism.

564.

B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” p. 45; Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 483-485. Mr. Batchelor formerly doubted or denied that the Aino women suckle the bear cubs (The Ainu of Japan, p. 173); but since then he has repeatedly seen them do it. Once, while he was preaching, a cub was being passed round among all the young women present and suckled by each in turn.

565.

J. J. Rein, Japan (Leipsic, 1881-1886), i. 447.

566.

B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” p. 45; Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 485 sq.

567.

Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 486-496. The killing of the bear is described somewhat differently by Miss I. L. Bird (Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, New Edition, 1885, pp. 276 sq.), but she did not witness the ceremony. She tells us that at Usu, on Volcano Bay, when the bear is being killed, the Aino shout, “We kill you, O bear! Come back soon into an Aino.” According to Dr. Siebold, a very respectable authority, the bear's own heart is frequently offered to the dead beast to assure him that he is still in life (Ethnologische Studien über die Aino auf der Insel Yesso, p. 26). This, however, is denied by Dr. Scheube, who says that the heart is eaten (“Baerencultus,” p. 50 note). The custom may vary in different places.

568.

B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens (Yokohama), Heft xxii. pp. 46 sqq.

569.

B. Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc., p. 46; id., Die Ainos, p. 15; Miss I. L. Bird, op. cit. pp. 273 sq. As to these whittled wands (inao), which are so conspicuous about the Aino huts, see the Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 89-95. He remarks (p. 92): “I have often insisted both in my lectures and also in my writings that the Ainu do not worship their inao, but that they make them as offerings to the deities, and set them up as signs showing reverence towards them. This, I must now remark, is true but in part, for while some of the ordinary or less important kinds are not worshipped, there are several others which are. Those not worshipped may almost always be regarded as offerings and charms pure and simple, while those which are worshipped must generally be regarded as messengers sent to the higher deities.” On the whole Mr. Batchelor would describe the inao as fetishes of various degrees of power. See further P. Labbé, Un bagne Russe, l'Isle de Sakhaline (Paris, 1903), pp. 194 sq., who compares the use of these whittled sticks to the use of holy candles among Roman Catholics. In Borneo the search for camphor is attended by many superstitions; among other things, when the searchers have found a tree which promises to yield much camphor “they plant near their hut a stake, whereof the outer surface has been cut into curled shavings and tufts down the sides and at the top” (W. H. Furness, Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters, Philadelphia, 1902, p. 168). According to some ancient authorities, the old Italians worshipped peeled sticks as gods or as the images of gods; however, the statement seems no better than an etymological guess to explain the word delubrum. See Festus, s.v. “Delubrum,” p. 73, ed. C. O. Müller; Servius on Virgil, Aen. ii. 225.

570.

“Ieso-Ki, ou description de l'île d'Iesso, avec une notice sur la révolte de Samsay-in, composée par l'interprète Kannemon,” printed in Malte-Brun's Annales des Voyages, xxiv. (Paris, 1814) p. 154.

571.

P. Labbé, Un Bagne Russe, l'Isle de Sakhaline (Paris, 1903), pp. 227, 232-258. The Gilyaks of Saghalien similarly keep and sacrifice bears; but the ceremonies are simpler, and they treat the animals with less respect than the Aino. See P. Labbé, op. cit. pp. 261-267.

572.

They inhabit the banks of the lower Amoor and the north of Saghalien. See E. G. Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur (London, 1861), p. 389.

573.

“Notes on the River Amur and the Adjacent Districts,” translated from the Russian, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xxviii. (1858) p. 396.

574.

Compare the custom of pinching a frog before cutting off his head; see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 86. In Japan sorceresses bury a dog in the earth, tease him, then cut off his head and put it in a box to be used in magic. See A. Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika (Berlin, 1878), i. 475 note, who adds “wie im ostindischen Archipelago die Schutzseele gereizt wird.” He probably refers to the Batta Pang-hulu-balang. See H. von Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 59 sq.; W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xii. (1885) pp. 478 sq.; J. B. Neumann, “Het Pane-en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra,” in Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Tweede Serie, dl. iii. (1886) Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, p. 306; Van Dijk, in Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxviii. (1895) pp. 307 sq.

575.

W. Joest, in B. Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 17; J. Deniker, “Les Ghiliaks d'après les derniers renseignements,” Revue d'Ethnographie, ii. (1883) pp. 307 sq. (on the authority of Mr. Seeland); Internationales Archiv für Ethnologie, i. (1888) p. 102 (on the authority of Captain Jacobsen); Archiv für Anthropologie, xxvi. (1900) p. 796 (abstract of a Russian work on the Gilyaks by Dr. Seland or Seeland). What exactly is meant by “dancing as bears” (“tanzen beide Geschlechter Reigentänze, wie Bären,” Joest, l.c.) does not appear.

576.

L. von Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande (St. Petersburg, 1891), iii. 696-731.

577.

L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, viii. (1905) pp. 260-274.

578.

E. G. Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur (London, 1861), pp. 379 sq.; T. W. Atkinson, Travels in the Regions of the Upper and Lower Amoor (London, 1860), pp. 482 sq.

579.

E. H. Fraser, “The Fish-skin Tartars,” Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for the year 1891-1892, New Series, xxvi. 36-39. L. von Schrenck describes a bear-feast which he witnessed in 1855 among the Oltscha (Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande, iii. 723-728). The Oltscha are probably the same as the Orotchis.

580.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 59 sqq.

581.

Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 492, 493, 495, 496.

582.

Op. cit. p. 482. Mr. Batchelor says “totem gods.”

583.

Op. cit. pp. 580 sqq.

584.

See above, pp. 188 sq.

585.

This account of the attitude of the Gilyaks to the bear, and of their reasons for holding the festival, is the one given by Mr. Leo Sternberg. See his articles, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, viii. (1905) pp. 273 sq., 456-458. He speaks of the bear as a minor deity (“Er selbst ist ja eine Gottheit, wenn auch eine kleine”). Mr. Sternberg and Mr. Batchelor, two of the best-informed writers on the subject, agree in denying that the slaughter of the bear at the festival is a sacrifice to the gods. See L. Sternberg, op. cit. p. 457; Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, p. 482. As to the belief of the Gilyaks in evil spirits, which menace and destroy the life of man, see L. Sternberg, op. cit. pp. 460 sqq.

586.

Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 410-415.

587.

Rev. J. Batchelor, op. cit. pp. 432 sq.

588.

Rev. J. Batchelor, op. cit. p. 438.

589.

See above, pp. 183, 184, 196.

590.

Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, p. 479.

591.

Rev. J. Batchelor, op. cit. pp. 481, 482.

592.

L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, viii. (1905) p. 272.

593.

E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana (London, 1883), p. 350.

594.

J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 261.

595.

Rev. John Heckewelder, “An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighbouring States,” Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society, vol. i. (Philadelphia, 1819) pp. 247 sq.

596.

J. J. M. de Groot, The Religious System of China, iv. (Leyden, 1901) pp. 157 sq.

597.

John Campbell, Travels in South Africa, being a Narrative of a Second Journey in the Interior of that Country (London, 1822), ii. 34.

598.

L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, viii. (1905) p. 248.

599.

I. Petroff, Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska, p. 145.

600.

Above, p. 141.

601.

A. C. Haddon, “The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres Straits,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix. (1890) p. 393; id., Head-hunters (London, 1901), p. 133; Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, v. (Cambridge, 1904) p. 166.

602.

Miss Alice C. Fletcher, The Import of the Totem, a Study from the Omaha Tribe, p. 6 (paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, August 1897).

603.

James Teit, “The Thompson Indians of British Columbia,” p. 356 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, April 1900).

604.

K. von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens (Berlin, 1894), pp. 352 sq., 512. The Chambioa Indians of Central Brazil kept birds of the same species in captivity and used their brilliant feathers to cover enormous head-dresses or masks, some six feet high, which were worn by dancers in certain mystic dances. The masks were guarded in a special hut of each village, and no woman might see them under pain of death. See F. de Castelnau, Expédition dans les parties centrales de l'Amérique du Sud (Paris, 1850-1851), i. 436 sq., 440, 449-451.

605.

However, many savages hunt the crocodile for the sake of its flesh, which some of them even regard as a delicacy. See H. von Wissmann, My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa, from the Congo to the Zambesi (London, 1891), p. 298; Ch. Partridge, Cross River Natives (London, 1905), p. 149; A. F. Mocler-Ferryman, Up the Niger (London, 1892), p. 222; Captain G. Burrows, The Land of the Pigmies (London, 1898), p. 247; R. E. Dennett, "Bavili Notes," Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) p. 399; J. Halkin, Quelques Peuplades du district de l'Uelé, I. Les Ababua (Liége, 1907), p. 33; H. Reynolds, “Notes on the Azandé Tribe of the Congo,” Journal of the African Society, No. xi. (April, 1904) p. 242; Brard, “Der Victoria-Nyansa,” Petermann's Mittheilungen, xliii. (1897) p. 78; A. van Gennep, Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar (Paris, 1904), p. 209; G. Kurze, “Sitten und Gebräuche der Lengua-Indianer,” Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena, xxiii. (1905) p. 30; W. Barbrooke Grubb, An unknown People in an unknown Land (London, 1911), pp. 82 sq.; Census of India, 1901, vol. xxvi., Travancore (Trivandrum, 1903), p. 353; Max Krieger, Neu-Guinea (Berlin, n.d.), p. 163; Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia (London, 1904), p. 770; W. E. Roth, Ethnological Studies among the North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines (Brisbane and London, 1897), p. 94; N. W. Thomas, Natives of Australia (London, 1906), p. 106. In antiquity some of the Egyptians worshipped crocodiles, but others killed and ate them. See Herodotus, ii. 69; Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 50; Aelian, De natura animalium, x. 21.

606.

Rev. J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p. 221. Compare C. Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië, 1846, dl. iii. 160; S. Müller, Reizen en onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel (Amsterdam, 1857), i. 238; M. T. H. Perelaer, Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dajaks (Zalt-Bommel, 1870), p. 7.

607.

F. Grabowsky, “Die Theogonie der Dajaken auf Borneo,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, ii. (1892) pp. 119 sq.

608.

H. Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo (London, 1896), i. 447 sq. Compare E. H. Gomes, Seventeen years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo (London, 1911), pp. 56-60. Similarly the Kenyahs, Kayans, and Ibans, three tribes of Sarawak, will not kill crocodiles except in revenge for the death of one of their people. See C. Hose and W. MacDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) pp. 186, 190, 199, compare ib. pp. 193 sq.

609.

J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche Bovenlanden,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, xxxix. (1890) pp. 75 sq.

610.

Nelson Annandale, “Primitive Beliefs and Customs of the Patani Fishermen,” Fasciculi Malayenses, Anthropology, i. (April, 1903) pp. 76-78.

611.

Voyages of Captain James Cook round the World (London, 1809), ii. 316-319.

612.

Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 336.

613.

Rev. J. Roscoe, op. cit. pp. 318, 322, 335.

614.

Fr. Stuhlmann, Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika (Berlin, 1894), pp. 510 sq.

615.

A. Raffenel, Voyage dans l'Afrique occidentale (Paris, 1846), pp. 84 sq.

616.

J. Sibree, The Great African Island (London, 1880), p. 269.

617.

Father Abinal, “Croyances fabuleuses des Malgaches,” Les Missions Catholiques, xii. (1880) p. 527; A. van Gennep, Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar (Paris, 1904), pp. 283 sq.

618.

W. Ellis, History of Madagascar (London, n.d.), i. 57 sq.

619.

W. Marsden, History of Sumatra (London, 1811), p. 292.

620.

J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche Bovenlanden,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië, xxxix. (1890) pp. 74, 75 sq.

621.

H. Ris, “De onderafdeeling Mandailing Oeloe en Pahantan en hare Bevolking,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië, xlvi. (1896) pp. 472 sq.

622.

G. G. Batten, Glimpses of the Eastern Archipelago (Singapore, 1894), p. 86.

623.

Th. Shaw, “On the Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,” Asiatic Researches, Fourth Edition, iv. (London, 1807) p. 37.

624.

Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi, v. (1831) pp. 363 sq.

625.

J. Bricknell, The Natural History of North Carolina (Dublin, 1737), p. 368.

626.

W. Bartram, Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida, etc. (London, 1792) pp. 258-261.

627.

H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii. 273.

628.

Rev. John Heckewelder, “An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighbouring States,” Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society, i. (Philadelphia, 1819) p. 245.

629.

W. Keating, Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River (London, 1825), i. 127.

630.

J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 294-296. Compare id., pp. 456-458; J. Adair, History of the American Indians (London, 1775), pp. 237 sq.

631.

Henry, Travels, pp. 176-179, quoted by J. Mooney, op. cit. pp. 457 sq.

632.

C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der Kekchí-Indianer,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, viii. (1895) p. 204.

633.

H. Rehse, Kiziba, Land und Leute (Stuttgart, 1910), pp. 130 sq.

634.

Fr. Boas, in Eleventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, pp. 9 sq. (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1896).

635.

Rev. J. Jetté, “On the Medicine-men of the Ten'a,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxvii. (1907) p. 158.

636.

J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 265.

637.

T. de Pauly, Description Ethnographique des Peuples de la Russie (St. Petersburg, 1862), Peuples de la Sibérie Orientale, p. 7.

638.

Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonaut. ii. 124.

639.

“Coutumes étranges des indigènes du Djebel-Nouba,” Les Missions Catholiques, xiv. (1882) p. 458.

640.

C. B. Klunzinger, Upper Egypt (London, 1878), pp. 402 sq.

641.

Caulin, Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva Andalucia, p. 96: “Reusan mucho matar qualquier animal no comestibile que no sea nocibo,” etc. Here reusan appears to be a misprint for recusan.

642.

G. W. Steller, Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 85, 280, 331.

643.

Voyages au Nord (Amsterdam, 1727), viii. 41, 416; P. S. Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 64; J. G. Georgi, Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 83.

644.

A. Erman, Travels in Siberia (London, 1848), ii. 43. For the veneration of the polar bear by the Samoyedes, who nevertheless kill and eat it, see ibid. pp. 54 sq.

645.

A. Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte (Leipsic, 1860), iii. 26.

646.

W. Jochelson, The Koryak (Leyden and New York, 1908), pp. 88 sq. (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vi., Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History).

647.

Max Buch, Die Wotjäken (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 139.

648.

A. Featherman, Social History of the Races of Mankind, Fourth Division, Dravido-Turanians, etc. (London, 1891) p. 422.

649.

J. Scheffer, Lapponia (Frankfort, 1673), pp. 233 sq. The Lapps “have still an elaborate ceremony in hunting the bear. They pray and chant to his carcase, and for several days worship before eating it” (E. Rae, The White Sea Peninsula (London, 1881), p. 276).

650.

Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France (Paris, 1744), v. 173 sq.; Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 172-181 (Paris, Michel Lévy, 1870).

651.

Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition, vi. (Paris, 1781) p. 171. L. H. Morgan states that the names of the Otawa totem clans had not been obtained (Ancient Society, London, 1877, p. 167). From the Lettres édifiantes, vi. 168-171, he might have learned the names of the Hare, Carp, and Bear clans, to which may be added the Gull clan, as I learn from an extract from The Canadian Journal (Toronto) for March 1858, quoted in The Academy, 27th September 1884, p. 203.

652.

A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt, p. 117 (Middletown, 1820), p. 133 (Edinburgh, 1824).

653.

De Smet, Western Missions and Missionaries (New York, 1863), p. 139.

654.

A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, iii. (1874) p. 111.

655.

Henry's Travels, pp. 143-145, quoted by J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900), pp. 446 sq.

656.

A. Mackenzie, “Descriptive notes on certain implements, weapons, etc., from Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, B.C.,” Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, ix. (1891) section ii. p. 58.

657.

James Teit, The Thompson Indians of British Columbia, p. 347 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, April 1900). The Thompson Indians used to be known as the Couteau or Knife Indians.

658.

J. Teit, The Lillooet Indians (Leyden and New York, 1906), p. 279 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History); id., The Shuswap (Leyden and New York, 1909), pp. 602 sq. (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition).

659.

Stephen Kay, Travels and Researches in Caffraria (London, 1833), p. 138.

660.

L. Alberti, De Kaffers aan de Zuidkust van Afrika (Amsterdam, 1810), p. 95. Alberti's information is repeated by H. Lichtenstein (Reisen im südlichen Afrika, Berlin, 1811-1812, i. 412) and by Cowper Rose (Four Years in Southern Africa, London, 1829, p. 155). The burial of the trunk is also mentioned by Kay, l.c.

661.

J. Shooter, The Kafirs of Natal (London, 1857), p. 215.

662.

Fr. Stuhlmann, Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika (Berlin, 1894), p. 87.

663.

Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 447.

664.

Fr. Stuhlmann, Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika (Berlin, 1894), p. 785.

665.

J. Becker, La Vie en Afrique (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 298 sq., 305.

666.

A. Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste (Jena, 1874-1875), ii. 243.

667.

A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, Up the Niger (London, 1892), p. 309.

668.

Lieut. Herold, “Bericht betreffend religiöse Anschauungen und Gebräuche der deutschen Ewe-Neger,” Mittheilungen von Forschungsreisenden und Gelehrten aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten, v. Heft 4 (Berlin, 1892), p. 156.

669.

H. Spieth, “Jagdgebräuche in Avatime,” Mitteilungen der geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena, ix. (1890) pp. 18-20. Compare H. Klose, Togo unter deutscher Flagge (Berlin, 1899), pp. 145-147. The ceremonies observed after the slaughter of a wild buffalo are of the same general character with variations in detail.

670.

Rev. J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 54; id., The Baganda (London, 1911), pp. 289, 448.

671.

Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), pp. 288 sq. Another curious notion which the Baganda have about sheep is that they give health to cattle and prevent them from being struck by lightning. Hence a sheep is often herded with cows to serve as a sort of lightning-conductor. See J. Roscoe, op. cit. p. 421.

672.

Rev. J. Roscoe, op. cit. pp. 423 sq. Further, “if a man's dog died in the house, his wife dared not touch it, because she feared its ghost; she would call her husband to take it away” (op. cit. p. 425).

673.

W. Jochelson, The Koryak (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 66 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vi., Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History).

674.

W. Jochelson, The Koryak (Leyden and New York, 1908), pp. 66-76 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vi., Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History).

675.

Captain W. F. W. Owen, Narrative of Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar (London, 1833), i. 170.

676.

Rev. R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa (London, 1904), p. 204.

677.

A. Thevet, La Cosmographie Universelle (Paris, 1575), ii. 936 [970] sq.

678.

A. d'Orbigny, Voyage dans l'Amérique Méridionale, iii. (Paris and Strasburg, 1844) p. 202.

679.

E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana (London, 1883), p. 352.

680.

G. B. Grinnell, Blackfoot Lodge Tales (London, 1893), p. 240.

681.

A. Caulin, Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva Andalucia Guayana y Vertientes del Rio Orinoco (1779), p. 97.

682.

J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 282.

683.

J. Owen Dorsey, “Teton Folklore Notes,” Journal of American Folklore, ii. (1889) p. 134; id., “A Study of Siouan Cults,” Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1894), p. 479.

684.

H. Mouhot, Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China (London, 1864), i. 252; J. Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge (Paris, 1883), i. 422.

685.

H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 420.

686.

J. G. Gmelin, Reise durch Sibirien (Göttingen, 1751-1752), ii. 278.

687.

L. von Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande, iii. 564.

688.

W. Dall, Alaska and its Resources (London, 1870), p. 89; id., in The Yukon Territory (London, 1898), p. 89.

689.

Fr. Boas, in Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p. 92 (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1890).

690.

A. G. Morice, “Notes, archæological, industrial, and sociological, on the Western Dénés,” Transactions of the Canadian Institute, iv. (1892-93) p. 108.

691.

A. G. Morice, Au pays de l'Ours Noir, chez les sauvages de la Colombie Britannique (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p. 71.

692.

L. Hennepin, Description de la Louisiane (Paris, 1683), pp. 97 sq.

693.

Relations des Jésuites, 1634, p. 24 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858). Nets are regarded by the Indians as living creatures who not only think and feel but also eat, speak, and marry wives. See F. Gabriel Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, p. 256 (pp. 178 sq. of the reprint, Librairie Tross, Paris, 1865); S. Hearne, Journey to the Northern Ocean (London, 1795), pp. 329 sq.; Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 109; ibid. 1639, p. 95; Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France (Paris, 1744), v. 225; Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 140 sqq. The Hebrews sacrificed and burned incense to their nets (Habakkuk i. 16). In some of the mountain villages of Annam the people, who are great hunters, sacrifice fowls, rice, incense, and gilt paper to their nets at the festival of the New Year. See Le R. P. Cadière, “Coutumes populaires de la vallée du Nguôn-So'n,” Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient, ii. (Hanoi, 1902) p. 381. When a net has caught little or nothing, the Ewe negroes think that it must be hungry; so they call in the help of a priest, who commonly feeds the hungry net by sprinkling maize-flour and fish, moistened with palm oil, on its meshes. See G. Härtter, “Der Fischfang im Evheland,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xxxviii. (1906) p. 55.

694.

Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 175, 178 (Paris, Michel Lévy Frères, 1870). They will not let the blood of beavers fall on the ground, or their luck in hunting them would be gone (Relations des Jésuites, 1633, p. 21). Compare the rule about not allowing the blood of kings to fall on the ground. See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 241 sqq.

695.

L. Hennepin, Nouveau voyage d'un pais plus grand que l'Europe (Utrecht, 1698), pp. 141. sq.; Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 109; F. Gabriel Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, p. 255 (p. 178 of the reprint, Libraire Tross, Paris, 1865). Not quite consistently the Canadian Indians used to kill every elan they could overtake in the chase, lest any should escape to warn their fellows (Sagard, l.c.).

696.

A. de Herrera, General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 142.

697.

Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris, 1781) p. 339.

698.

C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der Kekchí-Indianer,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, viii. (1895) pp. 195 sq.

699.

J. Mooney, “Cherokee Theory and Practice of Medicine,” American Journal of Folk-lore, iii. (1890) pp. 45 sq.; id., “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1891), pp. 320 sq., 347; id., “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 263 sq.

700.

J. G. Bourke, “Religion of the Apache Indians,” Folk-lore, ii. (1891) p. 438.

701.

L. Hennepin, Description de la Louisiane (Paris, 1683), pp. 80 sq.

702.

James Teit, The Thompson Indians of British Columbia, pp. 346 sq. (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, April 1900).

703.

James Teit, The Lillooet Indians (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp. 281 sq. (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History).

704.

Relations des Jésuites, 1634, p. 26 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).

705.

Fr. Boas, in “Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,” Report of the British Association for 1894, PP. 459 sq.

706.

H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii. 230.

707.

Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France (Paris, 1744), v. 443.

708.

W. Bogaras, The Chuckchee (Leyden and New York, 1904-1909), p. 409 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vii., Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History).

709.

J. Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme (Berlin, 1906), pp. 389 sq.

710.

J. A. Jacobsen, Reisen in die Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres (Berlin, 1896), p. 234.

711.

A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xli. (1897) pp. 4 sq.

712.

W. Barbrooke Grubb, An Unknown People in an Unknown Land (London, 1911), pp. 125 sq.

713.

L. M. Turner, “Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay Territory,” Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1894), pp. 200 sq.

714.

Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), p. 595; id., “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, xv. (1901) pp. 119 sqq. As to the antagonism which these Esquimaux suppose to exist between marine and terrestrial animals, see above, p. 84; and with regard to the taboos observed by these Esquimaux after the slaughter of sea-beasts, see Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 205 sqq.

715.

D. Crantz, History of Greenland (London, 1767), i. 216.

716.

E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1899), pp. 379-393, 437. Compare A. Woldt, Captain Jacobsen's Reise an der Nordwestküste Americas 1881-1883 (Leipsic, 1884), pp. 289-291. In the text the ceremony has been described mainly as it was witnessed by Mr. E. W. Nelson at Kushunuk, near Cape Vancouver, in December, 1879. As might have been expected, the ritual varies in details at different places.

717.

Garcilasso de la Vega, Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, translated by C. R. Markham, First Part, bk. i. ch. 10, vol. i. pp. 49 sq. (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871). Compare id., vol. ii. p. 148.

718.

Fr. Boas, in Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, pp. 61 sq. (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1890); id., Kwakiutl Texts, ii. pp. 303 sq., 305 sq., 307, 317 (Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, December, 1902).

719.

Relations des Jésuites, 1667, p. 12 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).

720.

F. Gabriel Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, pp. 255 sqq. (pp. 178 sqq. of the reprint, Libraire Tross, Paris, 1865).

721.

B. Hagen, Unter den Papuas (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 270.

722.

Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), pp. 529 sq.

723.

A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt (Middletown, 1820), p. 116.

724.

M. J. Schleiden, Das Salz (Leipsic, 1875), p. 47. For this reference I am indebted to my late friend W. Robertson Smith.

725.

Hugh Miller, Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland, ch. xvii. pp. 256 sq. (Edinburgh, 1889).

726.

M. Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, iii. (London, 1809) p. 620.

727.

W. Powell, Wanderings in a Wild Country (London, 1883), pp. 66 sq.

728.

C. Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (London, 1903), i. 403.

729.

R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants, Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 200; A. S. Thomson, The Story of New Zealand (London, 1859), i. 202; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix. (1890) p. 109.

730.

Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 395.

731.

A. G. Morice, Au pays de l'Ours Noir (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p. 28.

732.

Sir John Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation4 (London, 1882), p. 277, quoting Metlahkatlah, p. 96.

733.

W. Dall, Alaska and its Resources (London, 1870), p. 413.

734.

Fr. Boas, in “Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,” Report of the British Association for 1894, p. 461. Compare J. Teit, The Lillooet Indians (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp. 280 sq. (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History); C. Hill Tout, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxv. (1905) p. 140; id., The Far West, the Home of the Salish and Déné (London, 1907), pp. 170-172.

735.

Fr. Boas, in Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, pp. 16 sq. (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1890).

736.

Id., in Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p. 51 (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1889).

737.

Stephen Powers, Tribes of California (Washington, 1877), pp. 31 sq.

738.

Alex. Ross, Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or Columbia River (London, 1849), p. 97.

739.

Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, New Edition (New York, 1851), iv. 324, v. 119, where it is said, “a dog must never be permitted to eat the heart of a salmon; and in order to prevent this, they cut the heart of the fish out before they sell it.”

740.

H. C. St. John, “The Ainos,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, ii. (1873) p. 253; id., Notes and Sketches from the Wild Coasts of Nipon, pp. 27 sq. Similarly it is a rule with the Aino to bring the flesh of bears and other game into the house, not by the door, but by the window or the smoke-hole. See Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), p. 123; P. Labbé, Un Bagne Russe (Paris, 1903), pp. 255 sq.

741.

Archiv für Anthropologie, xxvi. (1900) p. 796 (as to the Gilyak of the Amoor); J. Scheffer, Lapponia (Frankfort, 1673), pp. 242 sq.; C. Leemius, De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita, et religione pristina commentatio (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 503; Revue d'Ethnographie, ii. (1883) pp. 308 sq.; Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vii. (1878) p. 207; Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” in Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), p. 595; id., “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, xv. (1901) p. 148; A. G. Morice, in Transactions of the Canadian Institute, iv. (1892-93) p. 108.

742.

E. James, Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains (London, 1823), i. 257.

743.

D. G. Brinton, Myths of the New World2 (New York, 1876), p. 278.

744.

W. H. Keating, Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River (London, 1825), i. 452.

745.

Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, xv. (1901) p. 161.

746.

A. d'Orbigny, Voyage dans l'Amérique Méridionale, iii. (Paris and Strasburg, 1844) p. 201. However, in this case a belief in the resurrection of the animals is not expressly affirmed, and the practice of burning the bones seems inconsistent with it.

747.

E. J. Jessen, De Finnorum Lapponumque Norwegicorum religione pagana tractatus singularis, pp. 46 sq., 52 sq., 65 (bound with C. Leem's De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita et religione pristina commentatio, Copenhagen, 1767). Compare Leem's work, pp. 418-420, 428 sq.; J. Acerbi, Travels through Sweden, Finnland, and Lapland (London, 1802), ii. 302.

748.

G. W. Steller, Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), p. 269; S. Krascheninnikow, Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka (Lemgo, 1766), p. 246.

749.

See A. Erman, referred to above, p. 223; J. G. Gmelin, Reise durch Sibirien (Göttingen, 1751-1752), i. 274, ii. 182 sq., 214; H. Vambery, Das Türkenvolk (Leipsic, 1885), pp. 118 sq. When a fox, the sacred animal of the Conchucos in Peru, had been killed, its skin was stuffed and set up (A. Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika, i. 443). Compare the bouphonia, above, pp. 4 sqq.

750.

At the annual sacrifice of the White Dog, the Iroquois were careful to strangle the animal without shedding its blood or breaking its bones; the dog was afterwards burned (L. H. Morgan, League of the Iroquois, Rochester, 1851, p. 210). It is a rule with some of the Australian blacks that in killing the native bear they may not break his bones. They say that the native bear once stole all the water of the river, and that if they were to break his bones or take off his skin before roasting him, he would do so again (R. Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, i. 447 sqq.). Some of the Queensland aborigines believe that if the bones or skulls of dugong were not put away in a heap or otherwise preserved, no more dugong would be caught (W. E. Roth, North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. 5, Brisbane, 1903, p. 27). When the Tartars whom Carpini visited killed animals for eating, they might not break their bones but burned them with fire (Carpini, Historia Mongalorum (Paris, 1838), cap. iii. § i. 2, p. 620). North American Indians might not break the bones of the animals which they ate at feasts (Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, vi. 72). In the war feast held by Indian warriors after leaving home, a whole animal was cooked and had to be all eaten. No bone of it might be broken. After being stripped of the flesh the bones were hung on a tree (Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner, London, 1830, p. 287). On St. Olaf's Day (29th July) the Karels of Finland kill a lamb, without using a knife, and roast it whole. None of its bones may be broken. The lamb has not been shorn since spring. Some of the flesh is placed in a corner of the room for the house-spirits, some is deposited on the field and beside the birch-trees which are destined to be used as May-trees next year (W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 160 sq., note). Some of the Esquimaux in skinning a deer are careful not to break a single bone, and they will not break the bones of deer while walrus are being hunted (Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), pp. 595 sq.). The Innuit (Esquimaux) of Point Barrow, Alaska, carefully preserve unbroken the bones of the seals which they have caught and return them to the sea, either leaving them in an ice-crack far out from the land or dropping them through a hole in the ice. By doing so they think they secure good fortune in the pursuit of seals (Report of the International Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska (Washington, 1885), p. 40). In this last custom the idea probably is that the bones will be reclothed with flesh and the seals come to life again. The Mosquito Indians of Central America carefully preserved the bones of deer and the shells of eggs, lest the deer or chickens should die or disappear (H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, i. 741). In Syria at the present time people offer a sacrifice for a boy when he is seven days old, and they will not break a bone of the victim, “because they fear that if a bone of the sacrifice should be broken, the child's bones would be broken, too” (S. I. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion To-day, Chicago, etc., 1902, p. 178). This last may be a later misinterpretation of the old custom. For West African cases of refusal to break the bones of sacrificial victims, see J. Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme (Berlin, 1906), pp. 458, 466, 480, 527, 712, 796, 824. Amongst the Narrinyeri of South Australia, when an animal was being cut up, the bystanders used to leap and yell as often as a bone was broken, thinking that if they did not do so their own bones would rot within them (A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 763).

751.

Relations des Jésuites, 1634, p. 25 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858); A. Mackenzie, Voyages through the Continent of America (London, 1801), p. civ.; J. Dunn, History of the Oregon Territory (London, 1844), p. 99; F. Whymper, in Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xxxviii. (1868) p. 228; id., in Transactions of the Ethnological Society, N.S., vii. (1869) p. 174; A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, iii. (1874) p. 111; Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), p. 596; id., “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, xv. (1901) p. 123; E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1899) pp. 438 sq. For more examples see above, pp. 225, 238 sqq., 242 sq., 246. After a meal the Indians of Costa Rica gather all the bones carefully and either burn them or put them out of reach of the dogs. See W. M. Gabb, On the Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica (read before the American Philosophical Society, 20th Aug. 1875), p. 520 (Philadelphia, 1875). The custom of burning the bones to prevent the dogs getting them does not necessarily contradict the view suggested in the text. It may be a way of transmitting the bones to the spirit-land. The aborigines of Australia burn the bones of the animals which they eat, but for a different reason; they think that if an enemy got hold of the bones and burned them with charms, it would cause the death of the person who had eaten the animal (Native Tribes of South Australia, Adelaide, 1879, pp. 24, 196).

752.

See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 279 sqq.

753.

A. de Herrera, General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 126.

754.

Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia (London, 1899), p. 475.

755.

For this suggestion I am indebted to a hint thrown out in conversation by my friend Professor G. F. Stout.

756.

See The Dying God, p. 1.

757.

The principle of the conservation of energy is clearly stated and illustrated by Balfour Stewart in his book The Conservation of Energy, Fourth Edition (London, 1877). The writer does not countenance the view that life is a form of energy distinct from and independent of physical and chemical forces; he regards a living being simply as a very delicately constructed machine in which the natural forces are in a state of unstable equilibrium. To avoid misapprehension it may be well to add that I do not pretend to argue either for or against the theory of life which appears to be implicitly adopted by the savage; my aim is simply to explain, not to justify or condemn, the mental attitude of primitive man towards these profound problems.

758.

W. Mannhardt, Germanische Mythen (Berlin, 1858), pp. 57-74; id., Baumkultus, p. 116; C. L. Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch (Berlin, 1867), i. 219 sqq.; J. Curtin, Myths and Folk-lore of Ireland (London, n.d.), pp. 45 sq.; E. Cosquin, Contes populaires de Lorraine (Paris, n.d.), ii. 25; E. S. Hartland, “The Physicians of Myddfai,” Archaeological Review, i. (1888) pp. 30 sq. In folk-tales, as in primitive custom, the blood is sometimes not allowed to fall on the ground. See E. Cosquin, l.c.

759.

W. Mannhardt, Germanische Mythen, p. 66.

760.

Jamblichus, Vita Pythag. 92, 135, 140; Porphyry, Vita Pythag. 28.

761.

Pindar, Olymp. i. 37 sqq., with the Scholiast.

762.

Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxviii. 34.

763.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 18. This is one of the sacred stories which the pious Herodotus (ii. 48) concealed and the pious Plutarch divulged.

764.

Adam Hodgson, Letters from North America (London, 1824), i. 244.

765.

J. Adair, History of the American Indians (London, 1775), pp. 137 sq. This writer, animated by a curious though not uncommon passion for discovering the ten lost tribes of Israel, imagined that he detected the missing Hebrews disguised under the red skins and beardless faces of the American Indians.

766.

É. Petitot, Monographie des Dènè-Dindjie (Paris, 1867), pp. 77, 81 sq.; id., Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-ouest (Paris, 1886), pp. 132 sqq., compare pp. 41, 76, 213, 264. The story is told in a briefer form, though without any reference to the custom, by another French missionary. See the letter of Mgr. Tache, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xxiv. (1852) pp. 336 sq.

767.

The first part of this suggestion is due to my friend W. Robertson Smith. See his Lectures on the Religion of the Semites2 (London, 1894), p. 380, note 1. The Faleshas, a Jewish sect of Abyssinia, after killing an animal for food, “carefully remove the vein from the thighs with its surrounding flesh.” See Halévy, “Travels in Abyssinia,” in Publications of the Society of Hebrew Literature, Second Series, vol. ii. p. 220. Caffre men will not eat the sinew of the thigh; “it is carefully cut out and sent to the principal boy at the kraal, who with his companions consider it as their right.” See Col. Maclean, Kafir Laws and Customs (Cape Town, 1866), p. 151. Gallas who pride themselves on their descent will not eat the flesh of the biceps; the reasons assigned for the custom are inconsistent and unsatisfactory. See Ph. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl (Berlin, 1893), p. 154. When the Bushmen kill a hare, they cut out a sinew of the thigh and will not eat it, alleging as their reason that the hare was once a man, and that this particular sinew is still human flesh. See W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd. Specimens of Bushman Folklore (London, 1911), pp. xxxix., 60 sq., 63.

768.

J. Mooney, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1891), p. 323. Compare id., “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 267, 447. In the last of these passages the writer quotes Buttrick, Antiquities, p. 12, as follows: “The Indians never used to eat a certain sinew in the thigh.... Some say that if they eat of the sinew they will have cramp in it on attempting to run. It is said that once a woman had cramp in that sinew, and therefore none must eat it.”

769.

See above, pp. 138 sqq.

770.

É. Aymonier, Notes sur le Laos (Saigon, 1885), p. 23.

771.

E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 423.

772.

Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), p. 504.

773.

L. von Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-Lande, iii. 546.

774.

P. S. Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 70.

775.

Rev. J. Macdonald, Light in Africa, Second Edition (London, 1890), p. 171.

776.

J. Teit, The Thompson Indians cf British Columbia, p. 317 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, April, 1900).

777.

So among the Esquimaux of Bering Strait a girl at puberty is considered unclean. “A peculiar atmosphere is supposed to surround her at this time, and if a young man should come near enough for it to touch him it would render him visible to every animal he might hunt, so that his success as a hunter would be gone.” See E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 291.

778.

P. Dobell, Travels in Kamtchatka and Siberia (London, 1830), i. 19.

779.

Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” Third Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1884), pp. 289 sq.

780.

J. G. Kohl, Kitschi-Gami (Bremen, 1859), ii. 251 sq.; Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, v. 173; Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 179 sq., 184.

781.

For examples of the incident, see J. F. Bladé, Contes populaires recueillis en Agenais (Paris, 1874), pp. 12, 14; G. W. Dasent, Popular Tales from the Norse (Edinburgh, 1859), pp. 133 sq. (“Shortshanks”); Aug. Schleicher, Litauische Märchen (Weimar, 1857), p. 58; Sepp, Altbayerischer Sagenschatz (Munich, 1876), p. 114; R. Köhler, on L. Gonzenbach's Sicilianische Märchen (Leipsic, 1870), ii. 230; Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, iii. 13. 3; Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonaut. i. 517; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 53; J. C. Poestion, Lappländische Märchen (Vienna, 1876), pp. 231 sq.; A. F. Chamberlain, in Eighth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p. 35 (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1892); I. V. Zingerle, Kinder und Hausmärchen aus Tirol2 (Gera, 1870), No. 25, p. 127; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche (Leipsic, 1848), p. 342; S. Grundtvig, Dänische Volksmärchen, übersetzt von W. Leo (Leipsic, 1878), p. 289; A. Leskien und K. Brugmann, Litauische Volkslieder und Märchen (Strasburg, 1882), pp. 405 sq., 409 sq.; A. und A. Schott, Walachische Maerchen (Stuttgart and Tübingen), No. 10, p. 142; Chr. Schneller, Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol (Innsbruck, 1867), No. 39, pp. 116 sq.; G. Basile, Pentamerone, übertragen von F. Liebrecht (Breslau, 1846), i. 99; P. Sébillot, Contes Populaires de la Haute-Bretagne (Paris, 1885), No. 11, p. 80; E. Cosquin, Contes Populaires de Lorraine (Paris, n.d.), i. p. 61; J. Haltrich, Deutsche Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in Siebenbürgen4 (Vienna and Hermannstadt, 1885), No. 24, pp. 104 sqq.; Grimm, Household Tales, No. 60. The incident often occurs in the type of tale analysed by Mr. E. S. Hartland in his Legend of Perseus (vol. i. pp. 12, 17, 18, etc.; vol. iii. pp. 6, 7, 8, etc.).

782.

Fr. Boas, in Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p. 58 (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1889); id., in Journal of American Folk-lore, i. (1888) p. 218.

783.

See W. H. Dall, “Masks and Labrets,” Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1884), pp. 111 sq. Compare id., Alaska and its Resources (London, 1870), p. 425; Ivan Petroff, Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska, p. 176.

784.

Ph. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die Geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl (Berlin, 1896), p. 47.

785.

Ph. Paulitschke, op. cit. p. 156; id., Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur, etc. (Berlin, 1893), p. 226.

786.

J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 54, § 354.

787.

L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 94, § 381; E. Monseur, in Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, xxxi. (1895) pp. 297 sq.

788.

J. V. Grohmann, op. cit. p. 81, § 576.

789.

Homer, Od. iii. 332, 341.

790.

Scholiast on Aristophanes, Plutus, 1110; Athenaeus, i. 28, p. 16 b; Paroemiographi Graeci, ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, i. 415, No. 100.

791.

See further H. Gaidoz, “Les Langues coupées,” Mélusine, iii. (1886-87) coll. 303-307; E. Monseur, loc. cit.

792.

T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, Relation d'un Voyage d'Exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance (Paris, 1842), pp. 562-564.

793.

Rev. J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 60. This custom appears not to be mentioned by the writer in his book The Baganda (London, 1911).

794.

A. Oldfield, “On the Aborigines of Australia,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, N.S. iii. (1865) p. 287.

795.

E. M. Curr, The Australian Race (Melbourne and London, 1886), i. 348, 381.

796.

R. Southey, History of Brazil, vol. i. Second Edition (London, 1822), p. 231.

797.

E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 423.

798.

Rev. S. Mateer, The Land of Charity (London, 1871), pp. 203 sq.

799.

Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “A Study of Siouan Cults,” Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1894), p. 420.

800.

C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia (London, 1911), p. 126.

801.

J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 105 note.

802.

G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens (Hermannstadt, 1880), pp. 15 sq.

803.

R. F. Kaindl, Die Huzulen (Vienna, 1894), pp. 79, 103; id., “Viehzucht und Viehzauber in den Ostkarpaten,” Globus, lxix. (1906) p. 387.

804.

E. Krause, “Abergläubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xv. (1883) p. 93.

805.

L. Decle, Three Years in Savage Africa (London, 1898), p. 160.

806.

Vetter, “Aberglaube unter dem Jabim-Stamme in Kaiser-Wilhelmsland,” Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena, xii. (1893) pp. 95 sq.

807.

E. Modigliani, Un Viaggio a Nías (Milan, 1890), p. 626.

808.

W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), ii. 303.

809.

M. Merker, “Rechtsverhältnisse und Sitten der Wadschagga,” Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft No. 113 (Gotha, 1902), pp. 35 sq.

810.

Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 320.

811.

Geoponica, xiii. 5. According to the commentator, the field assigned to the mice is a neighbour's, but it may be a patch of waste ground on the farmer's own land. The charm is said to have been employed formerly in the neighbourhood of Paris (A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France, Paris and Lyons, 1846, p. 383).

812.

A. Meyrac, Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes (Charleville, 1890), p. 176.

813.

American Journal of Folk-lore, xi. (1898) p. 161.

814.

G. Maan, “Eenige mededeelingen omtrent de zeden en gewoonten der Toerateya ten opzichte van den rijstbouw,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xlvi. (1903) pp. 329 sq.

815.

Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), p. 509.

816.

R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië, N.S., viii. (1879) p. 125.

817.

J. L. van Gennep, “Bijdrage tot de kennis van den Kangean-Archipel,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, xlvi. (1896) p. 101.

818.

C. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) pp. 198 sq.

819.

J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 60, § 405.

820.

J. G. von Hahn, Albanesische Studien (Jena, 1854), Heft i. p. 157.

821.

Lagarde, Reliquiae juris ecclesiastici antiquissimae, p. 135. For this passage I am indebted to my late friend W. Robertson Smith, who kindly translated it for me from the Syriac. It occurs in the Canons of Jacob of Edessa, of which a German translation has been published by C. Kayser (Die Canones Jacob's von Edessa übersetzt und erläutert, Leipsic, 1886; see pp. 25 sq.).

822.

W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People (London, 1872), p. 255.

823.

Dudley Kidd, Savage Childhood, a Study of Kafir Children (London, 1906), p. 292.

824.

H. A. Junod, Les Ba-ronga (Neuchatel, 1898), pp. 419 sq. As to the rain-making ceremony among the Baronga, see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 267 sq.

825.

J. Malalas, Chronographia, ed. L. Dindorf (Bonn, 1831), p. 264.

826.

D. Comparetti, Vergil in the Middle Ages (London, 1895), p. 265. I have to thank Mr. J. D. May of Merton College, Oxford, for this and the following references to Comparetti's book.

827.

D. Comparetti, op. cit. pp. 259, 293, 341.

828.

E. Doutté, Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord (Algiers, 1908), p. 144.

829.

Encyclopaedia Biblica, iv. (London, 1903) col. 4395.

830.

Grégoire de Tours, Histoire Ecclésiastique des Francs, traduction de M. Guizot, Nouvelle Édition (Paris, 1874), viii. 33, vol. i. p. 514. For some stories of the same sort, see J. B. Thiers, Traité des Superstitions (Paris, 1679), pp. 306-308.

831.

1 Samuel vi. 4-18. The passage in which the plague of mice is definitely described has been omitted in the existing Hebrew text, but is preserved in the Septuagint (1 Samuel v. 6, καὶ μέσον τῆς χώρας αὐτῆς ἀνεφύησαν μύες). See Dean Kirkpatrick's note on 1 Samuel v. 6 (Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges).

832.

Numbers xxi. 6-9.

833.

Homer, Iliad, i. 39, with the Scholia and the comment of Eustathius; Strabo, xiii. 1. 48 and 63; Aelian, Nat. Anim. xii. 5; Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. ii. 39, p. 34, ed. Potter; Pausanias, x. 12. 5.

834.

Strabo, xiii. 1. 64; Pausanias, i. 24. 8.

835.

Strabo, xiii. 1. 64; Eustathius, on Homer, Iliad, i. 39, p. 34; Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum,2 No. 609 (vol. ii. p. 386).

836.

Strabo and Eustathius, ll.cc.

837.

Professor W. Ridgeway has pointed out that the epithet Bassareus applied to Dionysus (Cornutus, Theologiae Graecae Compendium, 30) appears to be derived from bassara, “a fox.” See J. Tzetzes, Schol. on Lycophron, 771; W. Ridgeway, in The Classical Review, x. (1896) pp. 21 sqq.; S. Reinach, Cultes, Mythes, et Religions, ii. (Paris, 1906) pp. 106 sqq.

838.

Pliny, Nat. Hist. x. 75; Pausanias, v. 14. 1, viii. 26. 7; Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. ii. 38, p. 33, ed. Potter.

839.

Robigo or personified as Robigus. See Varro, Rerum rusticarum, i. 1. 6; id., De lingua latina, vi. 16; Ovid, Fasti, iv. 905 sqq.; Tertullian, De spectaculis, 5; Augustine, De civitate Dei, iv. 21; Lactantius, Divin. Instit. i. 20; L. Preller, Römische Mythologie3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 43 sqq.; W. Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1899), pp. 88 sqq.

840.

Aristotle, Hist. Anim. vi. 37, p. 580 b 15 sqq.; Aelian, Nat. Anim. xvii. 41; W. Warde Fowler, in The Classical Review vi. (1892) p. 413. In Laos, a province of Siam, the ravages committed by rats are terrible. From time to time whole armies of these destructive rodents appear and march across the country in dense columns and serried ranks, devouring everything as they go, and leaving famine, with all its horrors, in their train. See Lieut.-Col. Tournier, Notice sur le Laos Français (Hanoi, 1900), pp. 104, 135. So in Burma, the rats multiply in some years to such an extent that they cause a famine by destroying whole crops and granaries. See Max and Bertha Ferrars, Burma (London, 1900), pp. 149 sq.

841.

Polemo, cited by a scholiast on Homer, Iliad, i. 39 (ed. Im. Bekker). Compare Eustathius on Homer, Iliad, i. 39.

842.

Aelian, Nat. Anim. xii. 5.

843.

Aelian, l.c.

844.

See above, p. 279.

845.

E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, xxiv. (1891) p. 236.

846.

Λύκειος or Λύκιος, Pausanias, i. 19. 3 (with my note), ii. 9. 7, ii. 19. 3, viii. 40. 5; Lucian, Anacharsis, 7; Im. Bekker, Anecdota Graeca (Berlin, 1814-1821), i. 277, lines 10 sq.

847.

Pausanias, ii. 9. 7; Scholiast on Demosthenes, xxiv. 114, p. 736.

848.

Sophocles, Electra, 6.

849.

Scholiast on Demosthenes, xxiv. 114, p. 736.

850.

Pausanias, ii. 9. 7.

851.

P. Einhorn, Reformatio gentis Letticae in Ducatu Curlandiae, reprinted in Scriptores rerum Livonicarum, vol. ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) p. 621. The preface of Einhorn's work is dated 17th July 1636.

852.

A. Biet, Voyage de la France Equinoxiale en l'Isle de Cayenne (Paris, 1664), p. 361.

853.

J. Chaffanjon, L'Orénoque et le Caura (Paris, 1889), p. 203.

854.

Levrault, “Rapport sur les provinces de Canélos et du Napo,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), Deuxième Série, xi. (1839) p. 75.

855.

G. Osculati, Esplorazione delle regioni equatorali lungo il Napo ed il fiume delle Amazzoni (Milan, 1850), p. 114.

856.

J. B. Ambrosetti, “Los Indios Caingua del alto Paraná (misiones),” Boletin del Instituto Geografico Argentino, xv. (Buenos Ayres, 1895) p. 740.

857.

Ch. Wiener, Pérou et Bolivie (Paris, 1880), p. 369.

858.

Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris, 1781) pp. 335 sqq.

859.

Fr. Coreal, Voyages aux Indes occidentales (Amsterdam, 1722), ii. 132.

860.

H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 215 sq.

861.

H. R. Schoolcraft, op. cit. iii. 113.

862.

Rev. J. L. Wilson, Western Africa (London, 1856), p. 210.

863.

J. C. Reichenbach, “Étude sur le royaume d'Assinie,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), vii. Série, xi. (1890) pp. 322 sq.

864.

D. Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa (London, 1857), p. 615.

865.

Miss A. Werner, The Natives of British Central Africa (London, 1906), p. 64.

866.

C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia (London, 1911), p. 200.

867.

Rev. J. Roscoe, “The Bahima,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxvii. (1907) pp. 101 sq. Compare Major J. A. Meldon, “Notes on the Bahima of Ankole,” Journal of the African Society, No. 22 (January, 1907), p. 151.

868.

M. Merker, Die Masai (Berlin, 1894), p. 202. The belief that the human dead are turned into serpents is common in Africa; and the practice of offering milk to the reptiles appears to be not infrequent. See Adonis, Attis, Osiris,2 pp. 71 sq.

869.

J. Halkin, Quelques Peuplades du district de l'Uelé (Liége, 1907), p. 102; Notes Analytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du Musée du Congo, La Religion (Brussels, 1906), p. 162.

870.

Father Courtois, “Scènes de la vie Cafre,” Les Missions Catholiques, xv. (1883) p. 593. For more evidence of similar beliefs in Africa, see Father Courtois, “À travers le haut Zambèze,” Les Missions Catholiques, xvi. (1884) p. 299 (souls of the dead in guinea-fowl); Father Lejeune, “Dans la forêt,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxvii. (1895) p. 248 (souls of the dead in apes, owls, etc.).

871.

Father Abinal, “Croyances fabuleuses des Malgaches,” Les Missions Catholiques, xii. (1880) pp. 549-551. A somewhat different account of the Betsileo belief in the transmigration of souls is given by another authority. See G. A. Shaw, “The Betsileo,” Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 411. Compare A. van Gennep, Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar (Paris, 1904), pp. 272 sq., 283, 291.

872.

Rev. J. Sibree, The Great African Island (London, 1880), p. 270.

873.

“Das Volk der Tanala,” Globus, lxxxix. (1906) p. 362.

874.

W. H. Furness, “The Ethnography of the Nagas of Eastern Assam,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 463.

875.

T. C. Hodson, The Naga Tribes of Manipur (London, 1911), p. 159.

876.

(Sir) J. George Scott and J. P. Hardiman, Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part ii. vol. i. p. 26.

877.

Guerlach, “Chez les sauvages de la Cochinchine Orientale, Bahnar, Reungao, Sédang,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxvi. (1894) pp. 143 sq.

878.

E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” Revue de l'histoire des Religions, xxiv. (1891) p. 267. Compare D. Grangeon, “Les Cham et leurs superstitions,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxviii. (1896) p. 46. According to the latter writer, white horses are specially set apart to serve as domiciles for these domestic deities. After its dedication such a horse is carefully tended and never mounted again.

879.

F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” Mittheilungen der Wiener Geogr. Gesellschaft, 1882, p. 164; id., Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen (Gotha, 1882), p. 29 (Petermanns Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft, No. 67).

880.

L. de Freycinet, Voyage autour du Monde, ii. (Paris, 1829) pp. 595 sq.

881.

K. Semper, Die Palau-Inseln im Stillen Ocean (Leipsic, 1873), pp. 87 sq., 193. These sacred animals were called kalids. A somewhat different account of the kalids of the Pelew Islanders is given by J. Kubary (“Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian's Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde, Leipsic, 1888, i. 5 sqq.).

882.

W. D. Helderman, “De tijger en het bijgeloof der Bataks,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxiv. (1891) pp. 170-175. The account which this writer gives of the reception of a dead tiger by the Battas agrees with, and is probably the source of, Mr. Batten's account cited above (pp. 216 sq.).

883.

C. Hose, “The Natives of Borneo,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiii. (1894) p. 165. Compare A. W. Nieuwenhuis, In Centraal Borneo (Leyden, 1900), i. 148; id., Quer durch Borneo (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 105. According to the latter writer the Kayans or Bahaus in general abstain from the flesh both of deer and of grey apes, because they think that the souls of the dead may be in them.

884.

Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) p. 193.

885.

E. H. Gomes, Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo (London, 1911), p. 143.

886.

F. S. A. de Clercq, “De West en Noordkust van Nederlandsch Nieuw-Guinea,” Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 635.

887.

Max Krieger, Neu-Guinea (Berlin, n.d.), p. 404.

888.

K. Vetter, Komm herüber und hilf uns! iii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 22. Compare id., in Nachrichten über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land, 1897, pp. 87 sq.; B. Hagen, Unter den Papuas (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 225.

889.

H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss, Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 310.

890.

R. Parkinson, “Die Berlinhafen Section, ein Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Neu-Guinea Küste,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, xiii. (1900) p. 40.

891.

Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 150 sq.

892.

Mr. Sleigh of Lifu, quoted by Prof. E. B. Tylor, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii. (1898) p. 147.

893.

R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891), pp. 179 sq.

894.

R. H. Codrington, op. cit. p. 177.

895.

R. H. Codrington, op. cit. p. 33. East Indian evidence of the belief in transmigration into animals is collected by G. A. Wilken (“Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” De Indische Gids, June 1884, pp. 988 sqq.), who argues that this belief supplies the link between ancestor-worship and totemism. Compare the same writer's article “Iets over de Papoewas van de Geelvinksbaai,” pp. 24 sqq. (separate reprint from Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned. Indië, 5e Volgreeks ii.). Wilken's view on this subject is favoured by Professor E. B. Tylor (Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii. (1898) pp. 146 sq.). See further, Totemism and Exogamy, iv. 45 sqq.

896.

The Laws of Manu, ii. 201.

897.

Id., v. 164.

898.

Id., xi. 25.

899.

Id., xii. 39-78.

900.

Sir Monier Monier-Williams, Buddhism, Second Edition (London, 1890), pp. 111 sq. Full, if not always authentic, particulars of the Buddha's manifold transmigrations are contained in the Jatakas, a large collection of stories which has been completely translated into English by the late Professor E. B. Cowell, Dr. W. H. D. Rouse, and other scholars (6 volumes, Cambridge, 1895-1907).

901.

Diodorus Siculus, x. 6. 1-3; Jamblichus, De Pythagorica vita, xiv. 63; Porphyry, Vita Pythag. 26 sq.; Ovid, Metamorph. xv. 160 sqq. According to Heraclides Ponticus, the philosopher remembered his personal identity in four different human lives before he was born into the world as Pythagoras (Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 1. 4 sq.). See further E. Rohde, Psyche3 (Leipsic and Tübingen, 1903), ii. 417 sqq.

902.

Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 1. 4 and 36.

903.

Jamblichus, De Pythagorica vita, xxiv. 107-109; Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127-130; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11.

904.

Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 2. 77; H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 208, frag. 117.

905.

Sextus Empiricus, ix. 129; H. Diels, op. cit. i. pp. 213 sq., frag. 137.

906.

Compare Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127-130.

907.

Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. iii. 1. 2. 7; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11. 9; H. Diels, op. cit. i. p. 214, fragments 140, 141.

908.

As to Pythagoras in this respect, see E. Rohde, Psyche3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), ii. 161 sqq.

909.

Plutarch, De exilio, 17; id., De esu carnium, i. 7. 4; Clement of Alexandria, Strom. iv. 4. 12, p. 569 ed. Potter; Hippolytus, Refutatio omnium Haeresium, vii. 29, p. 388 ed. L. Duncker and F. G. Schneidewin; H. Diels, op. cit. i. pp. 207 sq., fragments 115, 119.

910.

Porphyry, De antro nympharum, 8.

911.

H. Diels, op. cit. i. pp. 208 sq., frag. 121.

912.

Clement of Alexandria, Strom. iii. 3. 14, iv. 23. 152, v. 14. 123, pp. 516 sq., 632, 722 ed. Potter; H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 207, 209, 215 sq., fragments 115, 124, 144-147.

913.

Empedocles is cited by Aristotle as an example of the melancholy which he believed to be characteristic of men of genius. See Aristotle, Problem. 30, p. 953 a 27 ed. Im. Bekker.

914.

Stobaeus, Eclogae, i. 41. 60 (vol. i. p. 331 ed. A. Meineke); Plutarch, De esu carnium ii. 4. 4; H. Diels, op. cit. i. p. 210, frag. 126.

915.

It seems to be fairly certain that Buddha died and Empedocles was born somewhere about the year 480 b.c. Hence it is difficult to suppose that the ideas of the former should have percolated from India to Greece, or rather to Sicily, in the lifetime of the latter. As to their respective dates see H. Oldenberg, Buddha5 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1906), pp. 115, 227; E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) p. 678 note 1.

916.

Plutarch, Adversus Coloten, 10; Aristotle, De Xenophane, 2, p. 975 a 39-b 4 ed. Im. Bekker; H. Diels, op. cit. i. pp. 175, 176, fragments 8 and 12.

917.

The evidence, consisting of the testimonies of ancient authorities and the fragments of Empedocles's own writings, is fully collected by H. Diels in his excellent work Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Zweite Auflage, i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 158 sqq., 173 sqq. Compare Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. (Paris, 1875) pp. 1 sqq.; H. Ritter et L. Preller, Historia Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis contexta, Editio Quinta (Gothae, 1875), pp. 91 sqq.; E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 678 sqq.

918.

Herbert Spencer, First Principles, Third Edition (London, 1875), pp. 536 sq.

919.

On the discovery of the atomic disintegration of certain chemical elements, and the general question (Evolution or Dissolution?) raised by that discovery, see W. C. D. Whetham, “The Evolution of Matter,” in Darwin and Modern Science (Cambridge, 1909), pp. 565-582, particularly his concluding paragraph: “In the strict sense of the word, the process of atomic disintegration revealed to us by the new science of radio-activity can hardly be called evolution. In each case radio-active change involves the breaking up of a heavier, more complex atom into lighter and simpler fragments. Are we to regard this process as characteristic of the tendencies in accord with which the universe has reached its present state, and is passing to its unknown future? Or have we chanced upon an eddy in a backwater, opposed to the main stream of advance? In the chaos from which the present universe developed, was matter composed of large highly complex atoms, which have formed the simpler elements by radio-active or rayless disintegration? Or did the primaeval substance consist of isolated electrons, which have slowly come together to form the elements, and yet have left here and there an anomaly such as that illustrated by the unstable family of uranium and radium, or by some such course are returning to their state of primaeval simplicity?”

920.

H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 190 sqq.; Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. (Paris, 1875) pp. 8 sqq.; H. Ritter und L. Preller, Historia Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis contexta5 (Gothae, 1875), pp. 102 sq.; E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 718 sqq.

921.

Aristotle, Physic. Auscult. ii. 8, p. 198 b 29 sqq., ed. Im. Bekker; ὅπου μὲν οὖν ἅπαντα συνέβη ὥσπερ κὰν εἰ ἔνεκά του ἐγίνετο, ταῦτα μὲν ἐσωθη ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτομάτου συστάντα ἐπιτηδείως; ὅσα δὲ μὴ οὕτως, ἀπώλετο καὶ ἀπόλλυται, καθάπερ Ἐμπεδοκλῆς λέγει τὰ βουγενῆ ἀνδρόπρῳρα. This passage is quoted by Darwin in the “Historical Sketch” prefixed to The Origin of Species with the remark, “We here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth, but how little Aristotle fully comprehended the principle, is shown by his remarks on the formation of the teeth.” Darwin omits Aristotle's reference to Empedocles, apparently deeming it irrelevant or unimportant. Had he been fully acquainted with the philosophical speculations of Empedocles, we can scarcely doubt that Darwin would have included him among the pioneers of evolution.

922.

Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 2. 62; H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 205, frag. 112. Compare The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 390.

923.

Plato, Phaedo, pp. 81 b-84 c; Republic, x. pp. 617 d-620 d; Timaeus, pp. 41 d-42 d; Phaedrus, p. 249 b.

924.

This is the view of E. Zeller (Die Philosophie der Griechen, ii.3 Leipsic, 1875, pp. 706 sqq.), Sir W. E. Geddes (on Plato, Phaedo, p. 81 e), and J. Adam (on Plato, Republic, x. p. 618 a). We have no right, with some interpreters ancient and modern, to dissolve the theory into an allegory because it does not square with our ideas.

925.

In our own time the theory of transmigration is favoured by Dr. McTaggart, who argues that human beings may have lived before birth and may live many, perhaps an infinite number of, lives after death. Like Plato he further suggests that the nature of the body into which a person transmigrates at death may be appropriate to and determined by his or her character in the preceding life. See J. McT. Ellis McTaggart, Some Dogmas of Religion (London, 1906), pp. 112-139. However, Dr. McTaggart seems only to contemplate the transmigration of human souls into human bodies; he does not discuss the possibility of their transmigration into animals.

926.

This is known, for example, of the Yuchi Indians, for among them “members of each clan will not do violence to wild animals having the form and name of their totem. For instance, the Bear clan people never molest bears.” See F. G. Speck, Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians (Philadelphia, 1909), p. 70. But in spite of the attention which has been paid to American totemism, we possess very little information as to the vital point of the system, the relation between a man and his totemic animal. Compare Totemism and Exogamy, iii. 88 sq., 311.

927.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 85 sqq. However, Collins reports that among the natives of New South Wales the women were “compelled to sit in their canoe, exposed to the fervour of the mid-day sun, hour after hour, chaunting their little song, and inviting the fish beneath them to take their bait” (D. Collins, An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales, London, 1804, p. 387). This may have been a form of conciliation like that employed by the American Indians towards the fish and game. But the account is not precise enough to allow us to speak with confidence. It is sometimes reported that the Australians attempt to appease the kangaroos which they have killed, assuring the animals of their affection and begging them not to come back after death to torment them. But the writer who mentions the report disbelieves it. See Dom Théophile Bérengier, in Les Missions Catholiques, x. (1878) p. 197.

928.

G. Catlin, O-Kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the Mandans (London, 1867), Folium reservatum; Lewis and Clarke, Travels to the Source of the Missouri River (London, 1815), i. 205 sq.

929.

A. Bastian, in Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte, 1870-71, p. 59. J. Reinegg (Beschreibung des Kaukasus, Gotha, St. Petersburg, and Hildesheim, 1796-97, ii. 12 sq.) describes what seems to be a sacrament of the Abghazses (Abchases). It takes place in the middle of autumn. A white ox called Ogginn appears from a holy cave, which is also called Ogginn. It is caught and led about amongst the assembled men (women are excluded) amid joyful cries. Then it is killed and eaten. Any man who did not get at least a scrap of the sacred flesh would deem himself most unfortunate. The bones are then carefully collected, burned in a great hole, and the ashes buried there.

930.

A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, vi. (Jena, 1871) pp. 632, note. On the Kalmucks as a people of shepherds and on their diet of mutton, see J. G. Georgi, Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1776), pp. 406 sq., compare p. 207; B. Bergmann, Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kalmücken (Riga, 1804-5), ii. 80 sqq., 122; P. S. Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), i. 319, 325. According to Pallas, it is only rich Kalmucks who commonly kill their sheep or cattle for eating; ordinary Kalmucks do not usually kill them except in case of necessity or at great merry-makings. It is, therefore, especially the rich who need to make expiation.

931.

W. E. Marshall, Travels amongst the Todas (London, 1873), pp. 129 sq.

932.

W. E. Marshall, op. cit. pp. 80 sq., 130.

933.

R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Madi or Moru Tribe of Central Africa,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xii. (1882-84) pp. 336 sq.

934.

Mutton appears to be now eaten by the tribe as a regular article of food (R. W. Felkin, op. cit. p. 307), but this is not inconsistent with the original sanctity of the sheep.

935.

See W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites2 (London, 1894), pp. 344 sqq. As to communion by means of an external application, see above, pp. 162 sqq.

936.

See above, pp. 190, 192.

937.

Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. p. 91, § 555 (March 1885).

938.

See Ch. Vallancey, Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis, iv. (Dublin, 1786) p. 97; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities (London, 1882-1883), iii. 195 sq. (Bohn's ed.); Rev. C. Swainson, Folk-lore of British Birds (London, 1886), p. 36; E. Rolland, Faune populaire de la France, ii. 288 sqq. The names for the bird are βασιλίσκος, regulus, rex avium (Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 90, x. 203), re di siepe, reyezuelo, roitelet, roi des oiseaux, Zaunkönig, etc. On the custom of hunting the wren see further N. W. Thomas, “The Scape-Goat in European Folklore,” Folk-lore, xvii. (1906) pp. 270 sqq., 280; Miss L. Eckstein, Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes (London, 1906), pp. 172 sqq. Miss Eckstein suggests that the killing of the bird called “the king” may have been a mitigation of an older custom of killing the real king.

939.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 194.

940.

R. Chambers, Popular Rhymes of Scotland, New Edition (London and Edinburgh, n.d.), p. 188.

941.

Ibid. p. 186.

942.

P. Sébillot, Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne (Paris, 1882), ii. 214.

943.

A. Bosquet, La Normandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse (Paris and Rouen, 1845), p. 221; E. Rolland, op. cit. ii. 294 sq.; P. Sébillot, l.c.; Rev. C. Swainson, op. cit. p. 42.

944.

G. Waldron, Description of the Isle of Man (reprinted for the Manx Society, Douglas, 1865), pp. 49 sqq.; J. Train, Account of the Isle of Man (Douglas, 1845), ii. 124 sqq., 141.

945.

In The Morning Post of Wednesday, 27th December 1911, we read that “the observance of the ancient and curious custom known as ‘the hunt of the wren’ was general throughout the Isle of Man yesterday. Parties of boys bearing poles decked with ivy and streamers went from house to house singing to an indescribable tune a quaint ballad detailing the pursuit and death of the wren, subsequently demanding recompense, which is rarely refused. Formerly boys actually engaged in the chase, stoning the bird to death with the object of distributing the feathers ‘for luck.’ ” From this account we may gather that in the Isle of Man the hunting of the wren is now merely nominal and that the pretence of it is kept up only as an excuse for collecting gratuities. It is thus that the solemnity of ritual dwindles into the pastime of children. I have to thank Mrs. J. H. Deane, of 41 Iverna Court, Kensington, for kindly sending me the extract from The Morning Post.

946.

Ch. Vallancey, Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis, iv. (Dublin, 1786) p. 97; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 195.

947.

G. H. Kinahan, “Notes on Irish Folk-lore,” Folk-lore Record, iv. (1881) p. 108; Rev. C. Swainson, Folk-lore of British Birds, pp. 36 sq.; E. Rolland, Faune populaire de la France, ii. 297; Professor W. Ridgeway, in Academy, 10th May 1884, p. 332; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), p. 497; L. L. Duncan, “Further Notes from County Leitrim,” Folk-lore, v. (1894) p. 197. The custom is still, or was down to a few years ago, practised in County Meath, where the verses sung are practically the same as those in the text. Wrens are scarce in that part of the country, “but as the boys go round more for the fun of dressing up and collecting money, the fact that there is no wren in their basket is quite immaterial.” These particulars I learn from a letter of Miss A. H. Singleton, dated Appey-Leix, Ireland, 24th February 1904.

948.

W. Henderson, Folk-lore of the Northern Counties (London, 1879), p. 125.

949.

Rev. C. Swainson, op. cit. pp. 40 sq.

950.

Madame Clément, Histoire des Fêtes civiles et religieuses, etc., de la Belgique Méridionale (Avesnes, 1846), pp. 466-468; A. De Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 77 sqq.; E. Rolland, Faune populaire de la France, ii. 295 sq.; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. (Göttingen, 1857) pp. 437 sq. The ceremony was abolished at the revolution of 1789, revived after the restoration, and suppressed again after 1830.

951.

E. Rolland, op. cit. ii. 296 sq.

952.

C. S. Sonnini, Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt, translated from the French (London, 1800), pp. 11 sq.; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 198. The “hunting of the wren” may be compared with a Swedish custom. On the 1st of May children rob the magpies' nests of both eggs and young. These they carry in a basket from house to house in the village and shew to the housewives, while one of the children sings some doggerel lines containing a threat that, if a present is not given, the hens, chickens, and eggs will fall a prey to the magpie. They receive bacon, eggs, milk, etc., upon which they afterwards feast. See L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden (London, 1870), pp. 237 sq. The resemblance of such customs to the “swallow song” and “crow song” of the ancient Greeks (on which see Athenaeus, viii. 59 sq., pp. 359, 360) is obvious and has been remarked before now. Probably the Greek swallow-singers and crow-singers carried about dead swallows and crows or effigies of them. The “crow song” is referred to in a Greek inscription found in the south of Russia ἕξ δεκάδας λυκάβας κεκορώνικα. See Compte Rendu of the Imperial Archaeological Commission, St. Petersburg, 1877, pp. 276 sqq. In modern Greece and Macedonia it is still customary for children on 1st March to go about the streets singing spring songs and carrying a wooden swallow, which is kept turning on a cylinder. See J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 636; A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 301; G. F. Abbott, Macedonian Folk-lore (Cambridge, 1903), p. 18; J. C. Lawson, Modern Greek Folklore and ancient Greek Religion (Cambridge, 1910), p. 35. The custom of making the image of the swallow revolve on a pivot, which is practised in Macedonia as well as Greece, may be compared with the pirouetting of the girl in the Servian rain-making ceremony. The meaning of these revolutions is obscure. See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 273, 275.

953.

S. Johnson, A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland, pp. 128 sq. (The Works of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., edited by the Rev. R. Lynam, London, 1825, vol. vi.).

954.

John Ramsay, Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 438 sq. The custom is clearly referred to in the “Penitential of Theodore,” quoted by Kemble, Saxons in England, i. 525; Ch. Elton, Origins of English History (London, 1882), p. 411: “Si quis in Kal. Januar. in cervulo vel vitula vadit, id est in ferarum habitus se communicant, et vestiuntur pellibus pecudum et assumunt capita bestiarum,” etc.

955.

J. G. Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 230-232. Shinty is the Scotch name for hockey: the game is played with a ball and curved sticks or clubs.

956.

R. Chambers, Popular Rhymes of Scotland, New Edition (London and Edinburgh, n.d.), pp. 166 sq.

957.

See above, vol. i. pp. 246 sq.

958.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte (Berlin, 1877), p. 183.

959.

O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest- Kalender aus Böhmen (Prague, n.d., preface dated 1861), pp. 49-52. Compare E. Cortet, Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses (Paris, 1867), p. 83. Similar processions with a Shrovetide Bear take place among some of the German peasantry of Moravia, though there the mummer is said to be wrapt in skins and furs rather than in straw and to personate Winter. See W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 431. This latter interpretation may be due to a misunderstanding of the old custom.

960.

On this custom see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 137 sqq.

961.

Real bears and other animals were formerly promenaded about both town and country with rags of coloured cloth attached to them. Scraps of these cloths and hairs of the animals were given, rather perhaps sold, to all who asked for them as preservatives against sickness and the evil eye. The practice was condemned by the Council of Constance. See J. B. Thiers, Traité des Superstitions (Paris, 1679), pp. 315 sq. We need not suppose that these animals represented the corn-spirit.

962.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 183 sq.

963.

See above, vol. i. pp. 281 sqq.

964.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 190.

965.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 188.

966.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. pp. 191-193.

967.

L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden (London, 1870), pp. 184 sq.; W. Mannhardt, op. cit. pp. 196 sq.

968.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 196.

969.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. pp. 197 sq.

970.

See above, vol. i. pp. 275, 298 sqq.

971.

Letter of Professor G. C. Moore Smith, dated The University, Sheffield, 13th January, 1909.

972.

R. Chambers, The Book of Days (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 94 sq.; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, New Edition (London, 1883), i. 506 sqq.; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), pp. 37 sqq.; O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Das festliche Jahr (Leipsic, 1863), pp. 27 sq. Compare W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus (Berlin, 1875), pp. 557 sq.; T. Fairman Ordish, “English Folk-drama,” Folk-lore, iv. (1893) pp. 163 sqq.; Folk-lore, viii. (1897) p. 184; E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage (Oxford, 1903), i. 208-210; H. Munro Chadwick, The Origin of the English Nation (Cambridge, 1907), p. 238. Counties in which the custom of Plough Monday is reported to have been observed are Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Cheshire, and Yorkshire. Thus the custom would seem to have been characteristic of a group of counties in the centre of England. In January 1887, I witnessed the ceremony in the streets of Cambridge. Wooden ploughs of a primitive sort were dragged about by bands of young men who were profusely decked with scarves and ribbons. They ran at a good pace, and beside them ran a companion with a money-box collecting donations. Amongst them I did not observe any woman or man in female attire. Compare The Folk-lore Journal, v. (1887) p. 161.

973.

See above, vol. i. pp. 25 sqq.

974.

G. Kazarow, “Karnevalbräuche in Bulgarien,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, xi. (1908) pp. 407 sq.

975.

G. Kazarow, “Karnevalbräuche in Bulgarien,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, xi. (1908) pp. 408 sq.

976.

Major A. Playfair, The Garos (London, 1909), pp. 94 sq.

977.

See above, p. 21.

978.

See my note on Pausanias, viii. 37. 3 (vol. iv. pp. 375 sqq.).