Footnotes (continued 2)

490.

Book ix. lines 838-842.

491.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 333 sq.

492.

Ibid. p. 334.

493.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 334.

494.

Ibid. p. 336.

495.

A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche (Leipsic, 1848), p. 397.

496.

A. Peter, Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 270.

497.

Bavaria Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iii. (Munich, 1865) pp. 344, 969.

498.

P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 67.

499.

A. John, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), pp. 193, 194, 197.

500.

R. Wuttke, Sächsische Volkskunde (Dresden, 1901), p. 360.

501.

W. Mannhardt. Mythologische Forschungen, p. 336.

502.

Ibid. p. 336; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 612.

503.

A. John, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), p. 194.

504.

E. H. Meyer, Badisches Volksleben (Strasburg, 1900), p. 437.

505.

A. Kuhn, Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 184 sq., § 515.

506.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen (Berlin, 1868), p. 28.

507.

W. Mannhardt, l.c.

508.

W. Mannhardt, l.c.

509.

Joseph Wright, English Dialect Dictionary, vol. i. (London, 1898) p. 605 s.v. “Churn”; id., vol. iii. (London, 1902) p. 453 s.v. “Kirn”; id. vol. iv. (London, 1903) pp. 82 sq. Sir James Murray, editor of the New English Dictionary, kindly informs me that the popular etymology which identifies kern or kirn in this sense with corn is entirely mistaken; and that “baby” or “babbie” in the same phrase means only “doll,” not “infant.” He writes, “Kirn-babbie does not mean ‘corn-baby,’ but merely kirn-doll, harvest-home doll. Bab, babbie was even in my youth the regular name for ‘doll’ in the district, as it was formerly in England; the only woman who sold dolls in Hawick early in the [nineteenth] century, and whose toy-shop all bairns knew, was known as ‘Betty o' the Babs,’ Betty of the dolls.”

510.

W. Henderson, Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England (London, 1879), pp. 88 sq.; M. C. F. Morris, Yorkshire Folk-talk, pp. 212-214. Compare F. Grose, Provincial Glossary (London, 1811), s.v. “Mell-supper”; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 27 sqq., Bohn's edition; The Denham Tracts, edited by Dr. James Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 2 sq. The sheaf out of which the Mell-doll was made was no doubt the Mell-sheaf, though this is not expressly said. Dr. Joseph Wright, editor of The English Dialect Dictionary, kindly informs me that the word mell is well known in these senses in all the northern counties of England down to Cheshire. He tells me that the proposals to connect mell with “meal” or with “maiden” (through a form like the German Mädel) are inadmissible.

511.

Joseph Wright, The English Dialect Dictionary, vol. iv. (London, 1903) s.v. “Mell,” p. 83.

512.

R. Chambers, The Book of Days (Edinburgh, 1886), ii. 377 sq. The expression “Corn Baby” used by the writer is probably his interpretation of the correct expression kirn or kern baby. See above, p. 151, note 3. It is not clear whether the account refers to England or Scotland. Compare F. Grose, Provincial Glossary (London 1811), s.v. “Kern-baby,” “an image dressed up with corn, carried before the reapers to their mell-supper, or harvest-home”; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 20; W. Henderson, Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England, p. 87.

513.

Joseph Wright, The English Dialect Dictionary, iii. (London, 1902) s.v. “Kirn,” p. 453.

514.

Joseph Wright, The English Dialect Dictionary, i. (London, 1898) p. 605.

515.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 21 sq.

516.

J. Jamieson, Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, New Edition (Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. 42 sq., s.v. “Kirn.”

517.

Mrs. A. B. Gomme, “A Berwickshire Kirn-dolly,” Folk-lore, xii. (1901) p. 215.

518.

Mrs. A. B. Gomme, “Harvest Customs,” Folk-lore, xiii. (1902) p. 178.

519.

J. G. Frazer, “Notes on Harvest Customs,” Folk-lore, vii. (1889) p. 48.

520.

(Rev.) H. W. Lett, “Winning the Churn (Ulster),” Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) p. 185. My friend Miss Welsh, formerly Principal of Girton College, Cambridge, told me (30th May 1901) that she remembers the custom of the churn being observed in the north of Ireland; the reapers cut the last handful of standing corn (called the churn) by throwing their sickles at it, and the corn so cut was taken home and kept for some time.

521.

J. Jamieson, Dictionary of the Scottish Language, New Edition (Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. 206, s.v. “Maiden.” An old Scottish name for the Maiden (autumnalis nymphula) was Rapegyrne. See Fordun, Scotichren. ii. 418, quoted by J. Jamieson, op. cit. iii. 624, s.v. “Rapegyrne.”

522.

R. C. Maclagan, in Folk-lore, vi. (1895) pp. 149, 151.

523.

Rev. M. MacPhail (Free Church Manse, Kilmartin, Lochgilphead), “Folk-lore from the Hebrides,” Folk-lore, xi. (1900) p. 441. That the Maiden, hung up in the house, is thought to keep out witches till the next harvest is mentioned also by the Rev. J. G. Campbell, Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1900), p. 20. So with the churn (above, p. 153).

524.

Sir John Sinclair, Statistical Account of Scotland, xix. (Edinburgh, 1797), pp. 550 sq. Compare Miss E. J. Guthrie, Old Scottish Customs (London and Glasgow, 1885), pp. 130 sq.

525.

Folk-lore Journal, vi. (1888) pp. 268 sq.

526.

The late Mrs. Macalister, wife of Professor Alexander Macalister, Cambridge. Her recollections referred especially to the neighbourhood of Glen Farg, some ten or twelve miles to the south of Perth.

527.

Rev. James Macdonald, Religion and Myth (London, 1893), pp. 141 sq.

528.

From information supplied by Archie Leitch, late gardener to my father at Rowmore, Garelochhead. The Kirn was the name of the harvest festivity in the south of Scotland also. See Lockhart's Life of Scott, ii. 184 (first edition); Early Letters of Thomas Carlyle, ed. Norton, ii. 325 sq.

529.

Communicated by the late Mr. Macfarlane of Faslane, Gareloch.

530.

A slightly different mode of making up the clyack sheaf is described by the Rev. Walter Gregor elsewhere (Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland, London, 1881, pp. 181 sq.): “The clyack sheaf was cut by the maidens on the harvest field. On no account was it allowed to touch the ground. One of the maidens seated herself on the ground, and over her knees was the band of the sheaf laid. Each of the maidens cut a handful, or more if necessary, and laid it on the band. The sheaf was then bound, still lying over the maiden's knees, and dressed up in woman's clothing.”

531.

W. Gregor, “Quelques coutumes du Nord-est du Comté d'Aberdeen,” Revue des Traditions populaires, iii. (October, 1888) pp. 484-487 (wrong pagination; should be 532-535). This account, translated into French by M. Loys Brueyre from the author's English and translated by me back from French into English, is fuller than the account given by the same writer in his Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland (London, 1881), pp. 181-183. I have translated “une jument ayant son poulain” by “a mare in foal,” and “la plus ancienne vache ayant son veau” by “the oldest cow in calf,” because in the author's Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland (p. 182) we read that the last sheaf was “carefully preserved till Christmas or New Year morning. On that morning it was given to a mare in foal,” etc. Otherwise the French words might naturally be understood of a mare with its foal and a cow with its calf.

532.

See above, pp. 115 sq.

533.

See below, vol. ii. p. 110.

534.

The drinking of the draught (called the κυκεών) as a solemn rite in the Eleusinian mysteries is mentioned by Clement of Alexandria (Protrept. 21, p. 18, ed. Potter) and Arnobius (Adversus Nationes, v. 26). The composition of the draught is revealed by the author of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter (verses 206-211), where he represents Demeter herself partaking of the sacred cup. That the compound was a kind of thick gruel, half-solid, half-liquid, is mentioned by Eustathius (on Homer, Iliad, xi. 638, p. 870). Compare Miss J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 155 sqq.

535.

Rev. J. Macdonald, Religion and Myth (London, 1893), pp. 140 sq., from MS. notes of Miss J. Ligertwood.

536.

Folk-lore Journal, vii. (1889) p. 51; The Quarterly Review, clxxii. (1891) p. 195.

537.

As to Inverness-shire my old friend Mr. Hugh E. Cameron, formerly of Glen Moriston, Inverness-shire, wrote to me many years ago: “As a boy, I remember the last bit of corn cut was taken home, and neatly tied up with a ribbon, and then stuck up on the wall above the kitchen fire-place, and there it often remained till the ‘maiden’ of the following year took its place. There was no ceremony about it, beyond often a struggle as to who would get, or cut, the last sheaf to select the ‘maiden’ from” (The Folk-lore Journal, vii. 1889, pp. 50 sq.). As to Sutherlandshire my mother was told by a servant, Isabella Ross, that in that county “they hang up the ‘maiden’ generally over the mantel-piece (chimney-piece) till the next harvest. They have always a kirn, whipped cream, with often a ring in it, and sometimes meal sprinkled over it. The girls must all be dressed in lilac prints, they all dance, and at twelve o'clock they eat potatoes and herrings” (op. cit. pp. 53 sq.).

538.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen (Berlin, 1868), p. 30.

539.

W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 327.

540.

J. E. Waldfreund, “Volksgebräuche und Aberglaube in Tirol und dem Salzburger Gebirg,” Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde, iii. (1855) p. 340.

541.

Th. Vernaleken, Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich (Vienna, 1859), p. 310.

542.

Mr. R. Matheson, in The Folk-lore Journal, vii. (1889) pp. 49, 50.

543.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen (Berlin, 1868), p. 30.

544.

E. Sommer, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen (Halle, 1846), pp. 160 sq.; W. Mannhardt, l.c.

545.

W. Mannhardt, l.c.; E. Peter, Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 269.

546.

Alexander Nicolson, A Collection of Gaelic Proverbs and Familiar Phrases, based on Macintosh's Collection (Edinburgh and London, 1881), p. 248.

547.

A. Nicolson, op. cit. pp. 415 sq.

548.

R. C. Maclagan, “Corn-maiden in Argyleshire,” Folk-lore, vii. (1896) pp. 78 sq.

549.

See above, p. 149, where, however, the corn-spirit is conceived as an Old Man.

550.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 73 sqq.

551.

Above, pp. 134, 137, 138 sq., 142, 145, 147, 148, 149.

552.

See below, pp. 237 sq.

553.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 47 sqq.

554.

Above, pp. 134, 135.

555.

Above, pp. 141, 155, 156, 158, 160 sq., 162, 165.

556.

See above, p. 135.

557.

Above, p. 145. Compare A. Kuhn, Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen (Leipsic, 1859), ii. p. 185, § 516.

558.

Above, pp. 136, 139, 155, 157 sq., 162; compare p. 160.

559.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 220 sqq.

560.

Above, p. 146. The common custom of wetting the last sheaf and its bearer is no doubt also a rain-charm; indeed the intention to procure rain or make the corn grow is sometimes avowed. See above, pp. 134, 137, 143, 144, 145; Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 195-197.

561.

Above, pp. 135 sq., 138, 139, 152.

562.

Above, p. 134.

563.

Above, pp. 134, 155, 158, 161.

564.

Above, pp. 136, 138, 140, 143, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158: W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, pp. 7, 26.

565.

J. de Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies, bk. v. ch. 28, vol. ii. p. 374 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). In quoting the passage I have modernised the spelling. The original Spanish text of Acosta's work was reprinted in a convenient form at Madrid in 1894. See vol. ii. p. 117 of that edition.

566.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 342 sq. Mannhardt's authority is a Spanish tract (Carta pastorale de exortacion e instruccion contra las idolatrias de los Indios del arçobispado de Lima) by Pedro de Villagomez, Archbishop of Lima, published at Lima in 1649, and communicated to Mannhardt by J. J. v. Tschudi. The Carta Pastorale itself seems to be partly based on an earlier work, the Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru. Dirigido al Rey N.S. en Su real conseio de Indias, por el Padre Pablo Joseph de Arriaga de la Compañia de Jesus (Lima, 1621). A copy of this work is possessed by the British Museum, where I consulted it. The writer explains (p. 16) that the Maize-mothers (Zaramamas) are of three sorts, namely (1) those which are made of maize stalks, dressed up like women, (2) those which are carved of stone in the likeness of cobs of maize, and (3) those which consist simply of fruitful stalks of maize or of two maize-cobs naturally joined together. These last, the writer tells us, were the principal Zaramamas, and were revered by the natives as Mothers of the Maize. Similarly, when two potatoes were found growing together the Indians called them Potato-mothers (Axomamas) and kept them in order to get a good crop of potatoes. As Arriaga's work is rare, it may be well to give his account of the Maize-mothers, Coca-mothers, and Potato-mothers in his own words. He says (p. 16): “Zaramamas, son de tres maneras, y son las que se quentan entre las cosas halladas en los pueblos. La primera es una como muñeca hecha de cañas de maiz, vestida como muger con su anaco, y llicilla, y sus topos de plata, y entienden, que como madre tiene virtud de engendrar, y parir mucho maiz. A este modo tienen tambien Cocamamas para augmento de la coca. Otras son de piedra labradas como choclos, o mazorcas de maiz, con sus granos relevados, y de estas suelen tener muchas en lugar de Conopas [household gods]. Otras son algunas cañas fertiles de maiz, que con la fertilidad de la tierra dieron muchas maçorcas, y grandes, o quando salen dos maçorcas juntas, y estas son las principales, Zaramamas, y assi las reverencian como a madres del maiz, a estas llaman tambien Huantayzara, o Ayrihuayzara. A este tercer genero no le dan la adoracion que a Huaca, ni Conopa, sino que le tienen supersticiosamente como una cosa sagrada, y colgando estas cañas con muchos choclos de unos ramos de sauce bailen con ellas el bayle, que llaman Ayrihua, y acabado el bayle, las queman, y sacrifican a Libiac para que les de buena cosecha. Con la misma supersticion guardan las mazorcas del maiz, que salen muy pintadas, que llaman Micsazara, o Mantayzara, o Caullazara, y otros que llaman Piruazara, que son otras maçorcas en que van subiendo los granos no derechos sino haziendo caracol. Estas Micsazara, o Piruazara, ponen supersticiosamente en los montones de maiz, y en las Piruas (que son donde guardan el maiz) paraque se las guarde, y el dia de las exhibiciones se junta tanto de estas maçorcas, que tienen bien que comer las mulas. La misma supersticion tienen con las que llaman Axomamas, que son quando salen algunas papas juntas, y las guardan para tener buena cosecha de papas.” The exhibiciones here referred to are the occasions when the Indians brought forth their idols and other relics of superstition and delivered them to the ecclesiastical visitors. At Tarija in Bolivia, down to the present time, a cross is set up at harvest in the maize-fields, and on it all maize-spadices growing as twins are hung. They are called Pachamamas (Earth-mothers) and are thought to bring good harvests. See Baron E. Nordenskiöld, “Travels on the Boundaries of Bolivia and Argentina,” The Geographical Journal, xxi. (1903) pp. 517, 518. Compare E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America (Oxford, 1892), i. 414 sq.

567.

Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique Centrale (Paris 1857-1859), iii. 40 sqq. Compare id., iii. 505 sq.; E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, i. 419 sq.

568.

E. Seler, “Altmexikanische Studien, ii.,” Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde, vi. (Berlin, 1899) 2/4 Heft, pp. 67 sqq. Another chapter of Sahagun's work, describing the costumes of the Mexican gods, has been edited and translated into German by Professor E. Seler in the same series of publications (“Altmexikanische Studien,” Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde, i. 4 (Berlin, 1890) pp. 117 sqq.). Sahagun's work as a whole is known to me only in the excellent French translation of Messrs. D. Jourdanet and R. Simeon (Histoire Générale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne par le R. P. Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Paris, 1880). As to the life and character of Sahagun see M. R. Simeon's introduction to the translation, pp. vii. sqq.

569.

B. de Sahagun, Aztec text of book ii., translated by Professor E. Seler, “Altmexikanische Studien, ii.,” Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde, vi. 2/4 Heft (Berlin, 1899), pp. 188-194. The account of the ceremonies given in the Spanish version of Sahagun's work is a good deal more summary. See B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne (Paris, 1880), pp. 94-96.

570.

J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part I. (Washington, 1900) pp. 423, 432. See further Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 296 sq.

571.

L. H. Morgan, League of the Iroquois (Rochester, 1851), pp. 161 sq., 199. According to the Iroquois the corn plant sprang from the bosom of the mother of the Great Spirit after her burial (L. H. Morgan, op. cit. p. 199 note 1).

572.

C. Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (London, 1903), ii. 280.

573.

H. M. Elliot, Supplemental Glossary of Terms used in the North-Western Provinces, edited by J. Beames (London, 1869), i. 254.

574.

W. B. Harris, “The Berbers of Morocco,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxvii. (1898) p. 68.

575.

Sir John Drummond Hay, Western Barbary, its Wild Tribes and Savage Animals (1844), p. 9, quoted in Folk-lore, vii. (1896) pp. 306 sq.

576.

See above, pp. 70 sqq.

577.

R. J. Wilkinson (of the Civil Service of the Federated Malay States), Malay Beliefs (London and Leyden, 1906), pp. 49-51. On the conception of the soul as a bird, see Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 33 sqq. The Toradjas of Central Celebes think that the soul of the rice is embodied in a pretty little blue bird, which builds its nest in the rice-field when the ears are forming and vanishes after harvest. Hence no one may drive away, much less kill, these birds; to do so would not only injure the crop, the sacrilegious wretch himself would suffer from sickness, which might end in blindness. See A. C. Kruyt, “De Rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel,” p. 374 (see the full reference in the next note).

578.

A. C. Kruyt, “De Rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel,” Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, v. part 4 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 361 sq. This essay (pp. 361-411) contains a valuable collection of facts relating to what the writer calls the Rice-mother in the East Indies. But it is to be observed that while all the Indonesian peoples seem to treat a certain portion of the rice at harvest with superstitious respect and ceremony, only a part of them actually call it “the Rice-mother.” Mr. Kruyt prefers to speak of “soul-stuff” rather than of “a soul,” because, according to him, in living beings the animating principle is conceived, not as a tiny being confined to a single part of the body, but as a sort of fluid or ether diffused through every part of the body. See his work, Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel (The Hague, 1906), pp. 1 sqq. In the latter work (pp. 145-150) the writer gives a more summary account of the Indonesian theory of the rice-soul.

579.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 28 sq.; A. C. Kruyt, “De Rijstmoeder,” op. cit. pp. 363 sq., 370 sqq.

580.

See above, pp. 113 sqq.

581.

See above, p. 181.

582.

See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 411 sq.; A. C. Kruyt, “De Rijstmoeder,” op. cit. p. 372.

583.

See above, pp. 92 sqq.

584.

A. W. Nieuwenhuis, Quer durch Borneo (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 157 sq.

585.

A. W. Nieuwenhuis, op. cit. i. 118-121. Compare id., In Centraal Borneo (Leyden, 1900), i. 154 sqq.

586.

A similar belief probably explains the masked dances and pantomimes of many savage tribes. If that is so, it shews how deeply the principle of imitative magic has influenced savage religion.

587.

A. W. Nieuwenhuis, Quer durch Borneo, i. 322-330. Compare id., In Centraal Borneo, i. 185 sq. As to the masquerades performed and the taboos observed at the sowing season by the Kayans of the Mendalam river, see above, pp. 94 sqq.

588.

A. W. Nieuwenhuis, op. cit. i. 317.

589.

Spenser St. John, Life in the Forests of the Far East2 (London, 1863), i. 187, 192 sqq.; W. Chalmers, quoted in H. Ling Roth's Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo (London, 1896), i. 412-414.

590.

Rev. E. B. Cross, “On the Karens,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, iv. (1854) p. 309.

591.

(Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, Gazetteer of Upper Burma and of the Shan States (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part i. vol. i. p. 559.

592.

J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 423. Compare Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 296 sq.

593.

(Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, op. cit. Part ii. vol. i. p. 172.

594.

From a letter written to me by Mr. J. S. Furnivall and dated Pegu Club, Rangoon, 6/6 (sic). Mr. Furnivall adds that in Upper Burma the custom of the Bonmagyi sheaf is unknown.

595.

J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche Bovenlanden,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië, xxxix. (1890) pp. 63-65. In the charm recited at sowing the Rice-mother in the bed, I have translated the Dutch word stoel as “root,” but I am not sure of its precise meaning in this connexion. It is doubtless identical with the English agricultural term “to stool,” which is said of a number of stalks sprouting from a single seed, as I learn from my friend Professor W. Somerville of Oxford.

596.

A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xliv. (1900) pp. 227, 230 sq.

597.

See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 411 sq.

598.

A. C. Kruijt, op. cit. p. 228.

599.

A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschapelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xxxix. (1895) pp. 142 sq.

600.

G. Maan, “Eenige mededeelingen omtrent de zeden en gewoonten der Toerateya ten opzichte van den rijstbouw,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xlvi. (1903) pp. 330-337. The writer dates his article from Tanneteya (in Celebes?), but otherwise gives no indication of the geographical position of the people he describes. A similar omission is common with Dutch writers on the geography and ethnology of the East Indies, who too often appear to assume that the uncouth names of these barbarous tribes and obscure hamlets are as familiar to European readers as Amsterdam or the Hague. The Toerateyas whose customs Mr. Maan describes in this article are the inland inhabitants of Celebes. Their name Toerateyas or Toradjas signifies simply “inlanders” and is applied to them by their neighbours who live nearer the sea; it is not a name used by the people themselves. The Toradjas include many tribes and the particular tribe whose usages in regard to the Rice-mother are described in the text is probably not one of those whose customs and beliefs have been described by Mr. A. C. Kruijt in many valuable papers. See above, p. 183 note 1, and The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 109 note 1.

601.

M. Joustra, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xlvi. (1902) pp. 425 sq.

602.

J. H. Neumann, “Iets over den landbouw bij de Karo-Bataks,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xlvi. (1902) pp. 380 sq. As to the employment in ritual of young people whose parents are both alive, see Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 413 sqq.

603.

A. L. van Hasselt, “Nota, betreffende de rijstcultuur in de Residentie Tapanoeli,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxvi. (1893) pp. 526-529; Th. A. L. Heyting, “Beschrijving der Onderafdeeling Groot- mandeling en Batangnatal,” Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Tweede Serie, xiv. (1897) pp. 290 sq. As to the rule of sowing seed on a full stomach, which is a simple case of homoeopathic or imitative magic, see further The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 136.

604.

W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic (London, 1900), pp. 225 sq.

605.

W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic, pp. 235-249.

606.

See above, pp. 163 sq.

607.

P. J. Veth, Java (Haarlem, 1875-1884), i. 524-526. The ceremony has also been described by Miss Augusta de Wit (Facts and Fancies about Java, Singapore, 1898, pp. 229-241), who lays stress on the extreme importance of the rice-harvest for the Javanese. The whole island of Java, she tells us, “is one vast rice-field. Rice on the swampy plains, rice on the rising ground, rice on the slopes, rice on the very summits of the hills. From the sod under one's feet to the verge of the horizon, everything has one and the same colour, the bluish-green of the young, or the gold of the ripened rice. The natives are all, without exception, tillers of the soil, who reckon their lives by seasons of planting and reaping, whose happiness or misery is synonymous with the abundance or the dearth of the precious grain. And the great national feast is the harvest home, with its crowning ceremony of the Wedding of the Rice” (op. cit. pp. 229 sq.). I have to thank my friend Dr. A. C. Haddon for directing my attention to Miss de Wit's book.

608.

A. C. Kruijt, “Gebruiken bij den rijstoogst in enkele streken op Oost-Java,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xlvii. (1903) pp. 132-134. Compare id., “De rijst-moeder in den Indischen Archipel,” Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, v. part 4 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 398 sqq.

609.

J. C. van Eerde, “Gebruiken bij den rijstbouw en rijstoogst op Lombok,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xlv. (1902) pp. 563-565 note.

610.

J. C. van Eerde, “Gebruiken bij den rijstbouw en rijstoogst op Lombok,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xlv. (1902) pp. 563-573.

611.

(Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States, Part i. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900) p. 426.

612.

Maximilian, Prinz zu Wied, Reise in das innere Nord-America (Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. 182 sq.

613.

H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States, v. (Philadelphia, 1856) pp. 193-195.

614.

B. A. Gupte, “Harvest Festivals in honour of Gauri and Ganesh,” Indian Antiquary, xxxv. (1906) p. 61. For details see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 77 sq.

615.

It is possible that the image of Demeter with corn and poppies in her hands, which Theocritus (vii. 155 sqq.) describes as standing on a rustic threshing-floor (see above, p. 47), may have been a Corn-mother or a Corn-maiden of the kind described in the text. The suggestion was made to me by my learned and esteemed friend Dr. W. H. D. Rouse.

616.

Homer, Odyssey, v. 125 sqq.; Hesiod, Theog. 969 sqq.

617.

See above, pp. 150 sq.

618.

It is possible that a ceremony performed in a Cyprian worship of Ariadne may have been of this nature: at a certain annual sacrifice a young man lay down and mimicked a woman in child-bed. See Plutarch, Theseus, 20: ἐν δὴ τῇ θυσίᾳ τοῦ Γορπιαίου μηνὸς ἰσταμένου δευτέρᾳ κατακλινόμενόν τινα τῶν νεανίσκων φθέγγεσθαι καὶ ποιεῖν ἅπερ ὠδινοῦσαι γυναῖκες. We have already seen grounds for regarding Ariadne as a goddess or spirit of vegetation. See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 138. Amongst the Minnitarees in North America, the Prince of Neuwied saw a tall strong woman pretend to bring up a stalk of maize out of her stomach; the object of the ceremony was to secure a good crop of maize in the following year. See Maximilian, Prinz zu Wied, Reise in das innere Nord-America (Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. 269.

619.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 97 sqq.

620.

See above, p. 135.

621.

See above, pp. 140 sqq., 155 sqq., 164 sqq., 197 sqq.

622.

However, the Sicilians seem on the contrary to have regarded Demeter as the seed-corn and Persephone as the ripe crop. See above, pp. 57, 58 sq.

623.

According to Augustine (De civitate Dei, iv. 8) the Romans imagined a whole series of distinct deities, mostly goddesses, who took charge of the corn at all its various stages from the time when it was committed to the ground to the time when it was lodged in the granary. Such a multiplication of mythical beings to account for the process of growth is probably late rather than early.

624.

In some places it was customary to kneel down before the last sheaf, in others to kiss it. See W. Mannhardt, Korndämonen, p. 26; id., Mythologische Forschungen, p. 339. The custom of kneeling and bowing before the last corn is said to have been observed, at least occasionally, in England. See Folk-lore Journal, vii. (1888) p. 270; and Herrick's evidence, above, p. 147, note 1. The Malay sorceress who cut the seven ears of rice to form the Rice-child kissed the ears after she had cut them (W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic, p. 241).

625.

Above, pp. 132 sq.

626.

Even in one of the oldest documents, the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Demeter is represented as the goddess who controls the growth of the corn rather than as the spirit who is immanent in it. See above, pp. 36 sq.

627.

W. G. Aston, Shinto (London, 1905), p. 127.

628.

See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 323 sqq., 330 sqq., 346 sqq.

629.

A. Pauly, Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Alterthumswissenschaft, v. (Stuttgart, 1849) p. 1011.

630.

Diodorus Siculus, i. 14, ἔτι γὰρ καὶ νῦν κατὰ τὸν θερισμὸν τοὺς πρώτους ἀμηθέντας στάχυς θέντας τοὺς ἀνθρώπους κόπτεσθαι πλησίον τοῦ δράγματοσ καὶ τὴν Ἶσιν ἀνακαλεῖσθαι κτλ. For θέντας we should perhaps read σύνθεντας, which is supported by the following δράγματος.

631.

Herodotus, ii. 79; Julius Pollux, iv. 54; Pausanias, ix. 29. 7; Athenaeus, xiv. 11, p. 620 a.

632.

H. Brugsch, Die Adonisklage und das Linoslied (Berlin, 1852), p. 24. According to another interpretation, however, Maneros is the Egyptian manurosh, “Let us be merry.” See Lauth, “Über den ägyptischen Maneros,” Sitzungsberichte der königl. bayer. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu München, 1869, ii. 163-194.

633.

Above, pp. 197 sqq.

634.

W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People (London, 1872), pp. 249 sq.

635.

See above, pp. 158 sq.

636.

W. Gregor, “Quelques coutumes du Nord-est du comté d'Aberdeen,” Revue des Traditions populaires, iii. (1888) p. 487 (should be 535).

637.

Homer, Iliad, xviii. 570; Herodotus, ii. 79; Pausanias, ix. 29. 6-9; Conon, Narrat. 19. For the form Ailinus see Suidas, s.v.; Euripides, Orestes, 1395; Sophocles, Ajax, 627. Compare Moschus, Idyl. iii. 1; Callimachus, Hymn to Apollo, 20. See Greve, s.v. “Linos,” in W. H. Roscher's Ausführliches Lexikon der griech, und röm. Mythologie, ii. 2053 sqq.

638.

Conon, Narrat. 19.

639.

F. C. Movers, Die Phönizier, i. (Bonn, 1841), p. 246; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte (Berlin, 1877), p. 281. In Hebrew the expression would be oï lanu (אוי לנו), which occurs in 1 Samuel, iv. 7 and 8; Jeremiah, iv. 13, vi. 4. However, the connexion of the Linus song with the lament for Adonis is regarded by Baudissin as very doubtful. See W. W. Graf Baudissin, Adonis und Esmun (Leipsic, 1911), p. 360, note 3.

640.

Pausanias, ix. 29. 8.

641.

Julius Pollux, iv. 54; Athenaeus, xiv. 11, pp. 619 f-620 a; Hesychius, svv. Βῶρμον and Μαριανουνὸς θρῆνος.

642.

The story was told by Sositheus in his play of Daphnis. His verses have been preserved in the tract of an anonymous writer. See Scriptores rerum mirabilium Graeci, ed. A. Westermann (Brunswick, 1839), pp. 220 sq.; also Athenaeus, x. 8, p. 415 b; Scholiast on Theocritus, x. 41; Photius, Lexicon, Suidas, and Hesychius, s.v. “Lityerses”; Apostolius, Centur. x. 74; Servius, on Virgil, Bucol. viii. 68. Photius mentions the sickle with which Lityerses beheaded his victims. Servius calls Lityerses a king and says that Hercules cut off his head with the sickle that had been given him to reap with. Lityerses is the subject of a special study by W. Mannhardt (Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 1 sqq.), whom I follow. Compare O. Crusius, s.v. “Lityerses,” in W. H. Roscher's Ausführliches Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie, ii. 2065 sqq.

643.

Julius Pollux, iv. 54.

644.

In this comparison I closely follow W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 18 sqq.

645.

Compare above, pp. 134, 136, 137 sq., 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 147 sq., 149, 164 sq. On the other hand, the last sheaf is sometimes an object of desire and emulation. See above, pp. 136, 141, 153, 154 sq., 156, 162 note 3, 165. It is so at Balquhidder also (Folk-lore Journal, vi. 269); and it was formerly so on the Gareloch, Dumbartonshire, where there was a competition for the honour of cutting it, and handfuls of standing corn used to be hidden under sheaves in order that the last to be uncovered should form the Maiden.—(From the information of Archie Leitch. See pp. 157 sq.)

646.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 19 sq.

647.

A. Kuhn, Märkische Sagen und Märchen (Berlin, 1843), p. 342.

648.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 20; F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. p. 217, § 397; A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 222, § 69.

649.

Above, pp. 167 sq.

650.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 22.

651.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 22.

652.

Ibid. pp. 22 sq.

653.

Ibid. p. 23.

654.

Ibid. pp. 23 sq.

655.

Ibid. p. 24.

656.

Ibid. p. 24.

657.

Ibid. p. 24.

658.

Ibid. pp. 24 sq.

659.

Ibid. p. 25.

660.

P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 65.

661.

A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 223, § 70.

662.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 25 sq.

663.

C. A. Elliot, Hoshangábád Settlement Report, p. 178, quoted in Panjab Notes and Queries, iii. §§ 8, 168 (October and December, 1885); W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), ii. 306.

664.

W. Crooke, op. cit. ii. 306 sq.

665.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 31.

666.

Ibid. p. 334.

667.

Ibid. p. 330.

668.

Ibid.

669.

Ibid. p. 331.

670.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 335.

671.

Ibid. p. 335.

672.

Above, pp. 135, 146.

673.

J. Nicholson, Folk-lore of East Yorkshire (London, Hull, and Driffield, 1890), p. 28, supplemented by a letter of the author's addressed to Mr. E. S. Hartland and dated 33 Leicester Street, Hull, 11th September, 1890. I have to thank Mr. E. S. Hartland for calling my attention to the custom and allowing me to see Mr. Nicholson's letter.

674.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 26.

675.

Above, pp. 149 sq.

676.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 50.

677.

Ibid. pp. 50 sq.

678.

See above, pp. 146, 170 note 1; Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 195 sqq.

679.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschunge pp. 32 sqq. Compare K. Bartsch, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Meklenburg (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 296 sq.; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 62 sq.; A. John, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), p. 193; A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 221, § 61; R. Krause, Sitten, Gebräuche und Aberglauben in Westpreussen (Berlin, preface dated March, 1904), p. 51; Revue des Traditions populaires, iii. (1888) p. 598.

680.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 35 sq.

681.

Ibid. p. 36.

682.

A. John, Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen, (Prague, 1905), p. 194.

683.

O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, vii. (1897) p. 153.

684.

J. Lecœur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 240 sq.

685.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 36.

686.

For the evidence, see ibid. p. 36, note 2. The “key” in the European custom is probably intended to serve the same purpose as the “knot” in the Cingalese custom, as to which see Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 308 sq.

687.

From a letter written to me by Colonel Henry Wilson, of Farnborough Lodge, Farnborough, Kent. The letter is dated 21st March, 1901.

688.

“Notes on Harvest Customs,” The Folk-lore Journal, vii. (1889) pp. 52 sq.

689.

C. Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (London, 1903), i. 214 sq.

690.

Compare Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 75 sq.

691.

K. Vetter, Komm herüber und hilf uns! Heft 2 (Barmen, 1898), p. 7.

692.

A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xxxix. (1895) p. 137. As to influence which the spirits of the dead are thought to exercise on the growth of the crops, see above, pp. 103 sq., and below, vol. ii. pp. 109 sqq.

693.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 39.

694.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 39 sq.

695.

Ibid. p. 40. For the speeches made by the woman who binds the stranger or the master, see ibid. p. 41; C. Lemke, Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), i. 23 sq.

696.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 41 sq.

697.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 42. See also above, p. 150.

698.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 42. See above, p. 149. In Thüringen a being called the Rush-cutter (Binsenschneider) used to be much dreaded. On the morning of St. John's Day he was wont to walk through the fields with sickles tied to his ankles cutting avenues in the corn as he walked. To detect him, seven bundles of brushwood were silently threshed with the flail on the threshing-floor, and the stranger who appeared at the door of the barn during the threshing was the Rush-cutter. See A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 221. With the Binsenschneider compare the Bilschneider and Biberschneider (F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, Munich, 1848-1855, ii. pp. 210 sq., §§ 372-378).

699.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 47 sq.

700.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 48.

701.

W. Mannhardt, l.c.

702.

Ibid. pp. 48 sq.

703.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 49.

704.

Ibid. p. 337.

705.

Ibid.

706.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 337 sq.

707.

A. John, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), p. 189.

708.

A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 224, § 74.

709.

Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern (Munich, 1860-1867), iii. 343 sq.

710.

Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, vii. (1897) p. 154.

711.

P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64, § 419.

712.

W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, Second Edition (London, 1872), pp. 251 sq. As to Perun, the old Slavonic thunder-god, see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 365.

713.

Rev. Walter Gregor, Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland (London, 1881), p. 182.

714.

See above, pp. 136 sqq.

715.

A. Germain, “Note zur Zanzibar et la Côte Orientale d'Afrique,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), Vème Série, xvi. (1868) p. 555.

716.

E. Modigliani, Un Viaggio a Nías (Milan, 1890), p. 593.

717.

J. Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme (Berlin, 1906), p. 303. In the Central Provinces of India “sometimes the oldest man in the house cuts the first five bundles of the crop and they are afterwards left in the fields for the birds to eat. And at the end of harvest the last one or two sheaves are left standing in the field and any one who likes can cut and carry them away. In some localities the last sheaves are left standing in the field and are known as barhona, or the giver of increase. Then all the labourers rush together at this last patch of corn and tear it up by the roots; everybody seizes as much as he can [and] keeps it, the master having no share in this patch. After the barhona has been torn up all the labourers fall on their faces to the ground and worship the field” (A. E. Nelson, Central Provinces Gazetteers, Bilaspur District, vol. A, 1910, p. 75). This quotation was kindly sent to me by Mr. W. Crooke; I have not seen the original. It seems to shew that in the Central Provinces the last corn is left standing on the field as a portion for the corn-spirit, and that he is believed to be immanent in it; hence the name of “the giver of increase” bestowed on it, and the eagerness with which other people, though not the owner of the land, seek to appropriate it.

718.

See above, pp. 93 sq.

719.

See above, pp. 36, 74.

720.

Leviticus, xix. 9 sq., xxiii. 22; Deuteronomy, xxiv. 19-21.

721.

See above, pp. 46 sq., 53 sqq., and below, vol. ii. pp. 109 sqq.

722.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 49 sq.; A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 254, § 400; M. Töppen, Aberglaube aus Masuren2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 57. The same belief is held and acted upon in Japan (L. Hearn, Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan, London, 1904, ii. 603).

723.

The explanation of the custom is W. Mannhardt's (Mythologische Forschungen, p. 49).

724.

Odyssey, xvii. 485 sqq. Compare Plato, Sophist, p. 216 A.

725.

A. C. Kruijt, “Mijne eerste ervaringen te Poso,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xxxvi. (1892) p. 402.

726.

For throwing him into the water, see p. 225.

727.

Cieza de Leon, Travels, translated by C. R. Markham, p. 203 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1864).

728.

Juan de Velasco, Histoire du Royaume de Quito, i. (Paris, 1840) pp. 121 sq. (Ternaux-Compans, Voyages, Relations et Mémoires Originaux pour servir à l'Histoire de la Découverte de l'Amérique, vol. xviii.).

729.

Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique Centrale (Paris, 1857-1859), i. 274; H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States (London, 1875-1876), ii. 340.

730.

Brasseur de Bourbourg, “Aperçus d'un voyage dans les États de San-Salvador et de Guatemala,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), IVème Série, xiii. (1857) pp. 278 sq.

731.

Herrera, quoted by A. Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika (Berlin, 1878), ii. 379 sq. See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 338 sq.

732.

E. James, Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains (London, 1823), ii. 80 sq.; H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 77 sqq.; J. De Smet, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xi. (1838) pp. 493 sq.; id., in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xv. (1843) pp. 277-279; id., Voyages aux Montagnes Rocheuses, Nouvelle Edition (Paris and Brussels, 1873), pp. 121 sqq. The accounts by Schoolcraft and De Smet of the sacrifice of the Sioux girl are independent and supplement each other. According to De Smet, who wrote from the descriptions of four eye-witnesses, the procession from hut to hut for the purpose of collecting wood took place on the morning of the sacrifice. Another description of the sacrifice is given by Mr. G. B. Grinnell from the recollection of an eye-witness (Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-tales, New York, 1889, pp. 362-369). According to this last account the victim was shot with arrows and afterwards burnt. Before the body was consumed in the fire a man pulled out the arrows, cut open the breast of the victim, and having smeared his face with the blood ran away as fast as he could.

733.

J. B. Labat, Relation historique de l'Ethiopie occidentale (Paris, 1732), i. 380.

734.

John Adams, Sketches taken during Ten Voyages in Africa between the years 1786 and 1800 (London, n.d.), p. 25.

735.

P. Bouche, La Côte des Esclaves (Paris, 1885), p. 132.

736.

T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, Voyage d'exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance (Paris, 1842), pp. 117 sq. The custom has probably long been obsolete.

737.

From information given me by my friend the Rev. John Roscoe, who resided for some time among the Wamegi and suppressed the sacrifice in 1886.

738.

F. Blumentritt, “Das Stromgebiet des Rio Grande de Mindanao,” Petermanns Mitteilungen, xxxvii. (1891) p. 110.

739.

A. Schadenberg, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der im Innern Nordluzons lebenden Stämme,” Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1888, p. (39) (bound with Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xx. 1888).

740.

Schadenberg, in Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1889, p. (681) (bound with Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xxi. 1889).

741.

(Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part i. vol. i. pp. 493-509.

742.

Col. R. G. Woodthorpe, “Some Account of the Shans and Hill Tribes of the States on the Mekong,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxvi. (1897) p. 24.

743.

For a general description of the country and the tribes see L. A. Waddell, “The Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley,” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, lxix. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1901), pp. 1-127.

744.

Miss G. M. Godden, “Naga and other Frontier Tribes of North-Eastern India,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxvii. (1898) pp. 9 sq., 38 sq.

745.

North Indian Notes and Queries, i. p. 4, § 15 (April 1891).

746.

Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. pp. 127 sq., § 721 (May 1885).

747.

Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., “Religion and Customs of the Uraons,” Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. i. No. 9 (Calcutta, 1906), pp. 141 sq.

748.

Major S. C. Macpherson, Memorials of Service in India (London, 1865), pp. 113-131; Major-General John Campbell, Wild Tribes of Khondistan (London, 1864), pp. 52-58, etc. Compare Mgr. Neyret, Bishop of Vizagapatam, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xxiii. (1851) pp. 402-404; E. Thurston, Ethnographic Notes on Southern India (Madras, 1906), pp. 510-519; id., Castes and Tribes of Southern India (Madras, 1909), iii. 371-385.

749.

J. Campbell, op. cit. p. 56.

750.

S. C. Macpherson, op. cit. pp. 115 sq.

751.

S. C. Macpherson, op. cit. pp. 117 sq.; J. Campbell, op. cit. p. 112.

752.

S. C. Macpherson, op. cit. pp. 117 sq.

753.

S. C. Macpherson, op. cit. p. 118.

754.

J. Campbell, op. cit. pp. 54 sq.

755.

J. Campbell, op. cit. pp. 55, 112.

756.

S. C. Macpherson, op. cit. p. 119; J. Campbell, op. cit. p. 113.

757.

S. C. Macpherson, op. cit. p. 127. Instead of the branch of a green tree, Campbell mentions two strong planks or bamboos (p. 57) or a slit bamboo (p. 182).

758.

J. Campbell, op. cit. pp. 56, 58, 120.

759.

E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872), p. 288, quoting Colonel Campbell's Report.

760.

J. Campbell, op. cit. p. 126. The elephant represented the Earth Goddess herself, who was here conceived in elephant-form (Campbell, op. cit. pp. 51, 126). In the hill tracts of Goomsur she was represented in peacock-form, and the post to which the victim was bound bore the effigy of a peacock (Campbell, op. cit. p. 54).

761.

S. C. Macpherson, op. cit. p. 130. In Mexico also the tears of the human victims were sometimes regarded as an omen of rain (B. de Sahagun, Histoire générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon, Paris, 1880, bk. ii. ch. 20, p. 86).

762.

E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, p. 288, referring to Colonel Campbell's Report.

763.

S. C. Macpherson, op. cit. p. 129. Compare J. Campbell, op. cit. pp. 55, 58, 113, 121, 187.

764.

J. Campbell, op. cit. p. 182.

765.

S. C. Macpherson, op. cit. p. 128; E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, p. 288.

766.

J. Campbell, op. cit. pp. 55, 182.

767.

J. Campbell, op. cit. p. 187.

768.

E. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India (Madras, 1909), iii. 381-385.

769.

J. Campbell, op. cit. p. 112.

770.

S. C. Macpherson, op. cit. p. 118.

771.

Above, pp. 239, 240, 244.

772.

Above, p. 134.

773.

Above, pp. 134, 157 sqq.

774.

Above, p. 223.

775.

Above, p. 224.

776.

Above, p. 170, with the references in note 1; Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 195-197.

777.

See above, p. 217.

778.

Above, p. 224.

779.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 5.

780.

H. Pfannenschmid, Germanische Erntefeste (Hanover, 1878), p. 98.

781.

Above, p. 217. It is not expressly said that he was wrapt in a sheaf.

782.

Above, pp. 225 sq., 229 sq.

783.

See The Dying God, pp. 160 sqq.

784.

See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 231 sqq., 239 sq.

785.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 47 sqq.

786.

I do not know when the corn is reaped in Phrygia; but the high upland character of the country makes it likely that harvest is later there than on the coasts of the Mediterranean.

787.

See above, pp. 240 sqq.; and Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 247-249. As to head-hunting in British Borneo see H. L. Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo (London, 1896), ii. 140 sqq.; in Central Celebes, see A. C. Kruijt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja's van Midden-Celebes, en zijne Beteekenis,” Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeelung Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, iii. part 2 (Amsterdam, 1899), pp. 147-229; among the Igorot of Bontoc in Luzon, see A. E. Jenks, The Bontoc Igorot (Manilla, 1905), pp. 172 sqq.; among the Naga tribes of Assam, see Miss G. M. Godden, “Naga and other Frontier Tribes of North-East India”, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxvii. (1898) pp. 12-17. It must not, however, be thought that among these tribes the custom of procuring human heads is practised merely as a means to ensure the growth of the crops; it is apparently supposed to exert a salutary influence on the whole life of the people by providing them with guardian spirits in the shape of the ghosts of the men to whom in their lifetime the heads belonged. The Scythians of Central Europe in antiquity set great store on the heads of the enemies whom they had slain in war. See Herodotus, iv. 64 sq.

788.

There are traces in Greece itself of an old custom of sacrificing human victims to promote the fertility of the earth. See Pausanias, vii. 19. 3 sq. compared with vii. 20. 1; id., viii. 53. 3; L. R. Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, ii. (Oxford, 1896) p. 455; and The Dying God, pp. 161 sq.

789.

Above, pp. 215 sq.

790.

Above, p. 216.

791.

Hesychius, s.v. Βῶρμον.

792.

Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, ii. 6. 3.

793.

The scurrilities exchanged both in ancient and modern times between vine-dressers, vintagers, and passers-by seem to belong to a different category. See W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 53 sq.

794.

See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 188 sqq.

795.

Above, pp. 236 sq., 240, 243, 244, 248 sq.

796.

The probable correspondence of the months, which supplies so welcome a confirmation of the conjecture in the text, was pointed out to me by my friend W. Robertson Smith, who furnished me with the following note: “In the Syro-Macedonian calendar Lous represents Ab, not Tammuz. Was it different in Babylon? I think it was, and one month different, at least in the early times of the Greek monarchy in Asia. For we know from a Babylonian observation in the Almagest (Ideler, i. 396) that in 229 b.c. Xanthicus began on February 26. It was therefore the month before the equinoctial moon, not Nisan but Adar, and consequently Lous answered to the lunar month Tammuz.”

797.

Above, p. 215.

798.

Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, ii. 5. 11; Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, Argon. iv. 1396; Plutarch, Parall. 38. Herodotus (ii. 45) discredits the idea that the Egyptians ever offered human sacrifices. But his authority is not to be weighed against that of Manetho (Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 73), who affirms that they did. See further Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection (London and New York, 1911), i. 210 sqq., who says (pp. 210, 212): “There is abundant proof for the statement that the Egyptians offered up sacrifices of human beings, and that, in common with many African tribes at the present day, their customs in dealing with vanquished enemies were bloodthirsty and savage.... The passages from Egyptian works quoted earlier in this chapter prove that human sacrifices were offered up at Heliopolis as well as at Tetu, or Busiris, and the rumour of such sacrifices has found expression in the works of Greek writers.”

799.

E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, i. (Stuttgart, 1884), § 57, p. 68.

800.

E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums,2 i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1909), p. 97; G. Maspero, Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique, Les Origines (Paris, 1895), pp. 129 sqq. Both these eminent historians have abandoned their former theory that Osiris was the Sun-god. Professor E. Meyer now speaks of Osiris as “the great vegetation god” and, on the same page, as “an earth-god” (op. cit. i. 2. p. 70). I am happy to find the view of the nature of Osiris, which I advocated many years ago, supported by the authority of so distinguished an Oriental scholar. Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge holds that Busiris was the oldest shrine of Osiris in the north of Egypt, but that it was less ancient than his shrine at Abydos in the south. See E. A. Wallis Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection (London and New York, 1911), ii. 1.

801.

Diodorus Siculus, i. 88; Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 73, compare 30, 33.

802.

Margaret A. Murray, The Osireion at Abydos (London, 1904), p. 30, referring to Mariette, Dendereh, iv. plates xxxi., lvi., and lxxxi. The passage of Diodorus Siculus referred to is i. 62. 4. As to masks of animals worn by Egyptian men and women in religious rites see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 133; The Dying God, p. 72.

803.

Above, pp. 237 sq., 240, 251.

804.

E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, i. (Oxford, 1892) p. 422.

805.

Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique Centrale (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 535.

806.

Festus, s.v. Catularia, p. 45 ed. C. O. Müller. Compare id., s.v. Rutilae canes, p. 285; Columella, De re rustica, x. 342 sq.; Ovid, Fasti, iv. 905 sqq.; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xviii. 14.

807.

D. Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus (St. Petersburg, 1856), ii. 388 sq. Compare ibid., pp. 384 sq., 386 sq., 391, 393, 395, 397. For other instances of the assimilation of the victim to the god, see H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda (Berlin, 1894), pp. 77 sq., 357-359.

808.

Above, pp. 240, 249.

809.

Above, pp. 149 sq., 237 sq., 239.

810.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 18.

811.

See above, p. 248; and compare Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 331 sqq.

812.

See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, p. 323.

813.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 22, 30, 31, 33, 73.

814.

Sir J. G. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians (ed. 1878), iii. 81.

815.

Pausanias, i. 22. 3, viii. 5. 8, viii. 42. i.

816.

Cornutus, Theologiae Graecae Compendium, 28. See above, p. 42.

817.

W. Hone, Every-day Book (London, n.d.), ii. coll. 1170 sq.

818.

Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore (London, 1883), pp. 372 sq., referring to Mrs. Bray's Traditions of Devon, i. 330.

819.

W. Hone, op. cit. ii. 1172.

820.

The Rev. Sydney Cooper, of 80 Gloucester Street, Cirencester, wrote to me (4th February 1893) that his wife remembers the “neck” being kept on the mantelpiece of the parlour in a Cornish farmhouse; it generally stayed there throughout the year.

821.

“Old Harvest Customs in Devon and Cornwall,” Folk-lore, i. (1890) p. 280.

822.

Ibid.

823.

Frances Hoggan, M.D., “The Neck Feast,” Folk-lore, iv. (1893) p. 123. In Pembrokeshire the last sheaf of corn seems to have been commonly known as “the Hag” (wrach) rather than as “the Neck.” See above, pp. 142-144.

824.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 20 (Bohn's edition); Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, p. 371.

825.

Burne and Jackson, l.c.

826.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 185.

827.

See above, p. 158.

828.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 185.

829.

Ibid.

830.

Revue des Traditions populaires, ii. (1887) p. 500.

831.

Above, p. 150.

832.

E. Meier, in Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde, i. (1853) pp. 170-173; U. Jahn, Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht (Breslau, 1884), pp. 166-169; H. Pfannenschmid, Germanische Erntefeste (Hanover, 1878), pp. 104 sq.; A. Kuhn, Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen (Leipsic, 1859), ii. pp. 177 sq., §§ 491, 492; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche (Leipsic, 1848), p. 395), § 97; K. Lynker, Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen (Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), p. 256, § 340.

833.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen (Berlin, 1868), pp. 1-6.

834.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund2 (Danzig, 1866), pp. 6 sqq.; id., Antike Wald- und Feldkulte (Berlin, 1877), pp. 318 sq.; id., Mythologische Forschungen, p. 103; A. Witzchel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 213; O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, vii. (1897) p. 150; W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 327; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii, 60.

835.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 10 sqq.; id., Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 319.

836.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 14 sq.

837.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 104; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, ii. 64.

838.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 104.

839.

Ibid. pp. 104 sq. On the Harvest-May, see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 47 sq.

840.

L. F. Sauvé, Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), p. 191.

841.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 105.

842.

Ibid. p. 30.

843.

Ibid. pp. 30, 105.

844.

Ibid. pp. 105 sq.

845.

P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64.

846.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 33, 39; K. Bartsch, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Meklenburg (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1498.

847.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 320.

848.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 p. 33.

849.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 33 sq.; K. Bartsch, op. cit. ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1500, 1501.

850.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 33, 34.

851.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 p. 38; id., Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 320.

852.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 34 sq.

853.

K. Bartsch, op. cit. ii. p. 311, § 1505.

854.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund,2 pp. 35-37; K. Bartsch, op. cit. ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1499, 1501, p. 311, §§ 1506, 1507.

855.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 321.

856.

Ibid. pp. 321 sq.

857.

Ibid. p. 320.

858.

Ibid. pp. 320 sq.

859.

Ibid. p. 322.

860.

Ibid. p. 323.

861.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 13.

862.

W. Mannhardt, l.c.; J. H. Schmitz, Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Rathsel des Eifler Volkes (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 95; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche (Leipsic, 1848), p. 398.

863.

G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.

864.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 13. Compare A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, l.c.

865.

K. Haupt, Sagenbuch der Lausitz (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. p. 232, No. 277 note.

866.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 13.

867.

A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 220.

868.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, pp. 13 sq.; J. H. Schmitz, Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 95; A. Kuhn, Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 180 sq.; H. Pfannenschmid, Germanische Erntefeste (Hanover, 1878), p. 110.

869.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 14; H. Pfannenschmid, op. cit. pp. 111, 419 sq.

870.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 15. So in Shropshire, where the corn-spirit is conceived in the form of a gander (see above, p. 268), the expression for overthrowing a load at harvest is “to lose the goose,” and the penalty used to be the loss of the goose at the harvest-supper (C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, London, 1883, p. 375); and in some parts of England the harvest-supper was called the Harvest Gosling, or the Inning Goose (J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 23, 26, Bohn's edition).

871.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 14.

872.

Ibid. p. 15.

873.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 30.

874.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 15.

875.

Ibid. pp. 15 sq.

876.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 15; id., Mythologische Forschungen, p. 30.

877.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 1.

878.

W. Gregor, “Preliminary Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland,” Report of the British Association for 1896, p. 623.

879.

Folk-lore Journal, vii. (1889) pp. 47 sq.

880.

L. F. Sauvé, Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), p. 191.

881.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 3.

882.

O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, vii. (1897) p. 154.

883.

C. Lemke, Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), i. 24.

884.

G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.

885.

Above, p. 268.

886.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 29.

887.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 29 sq.; id., Die Korndämonen, p. 5.

888.

Georgeakis et Pineau, Folk-lore de Lesbos (Paris, 1894), p. 310.

889.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 172-174; id., Mythologische Forschungen, p. 30; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64, 65.

890.

L. F. Sauvé, Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), p. 191.

891.

Ch. Beauquier, Les Mois en Franche-Comté (Paris, 1900), p. 102.

892.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 155 sq.

893.

Ibid. pp. 157 sq.

894.

Ibid. p. 159.

895.

Ibid. pp. 161 sq.

896.

Ibid. p. 162.

897.

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. pp. 232 sq., § 426; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 162.

898.

F. Panzer, op. cit. ii. pp. 228 sq., § 422; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 163; Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iii. (Munich, 1865) p. 344.

899.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 163.

900.

E. H. Meyer, Badisches Volksleben (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.

901.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 164.

902.

Ibid. p. 164.

903.

E. H. Meyer, Badisches Volksleben (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.

904.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 164 sq.

905.

Ibid. p. 165.

906.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 24, Bohn's edition, quoting The Gentleman's Magazine for February, 1795, p. 124; W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 165.

907.

R. C. Maclagan, “Notes on folk-lore objects collected in Argyleshire,” Folk-lore, vi. (1895) p. 151, from information given by Mrs. C. Nicholson.

908.

Above, p. 232.

909.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 165.

910.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 166; id., Mythologische Forschungen, p. 185.

911.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 166.

912.

Above, p. 281.

913.

J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107.

914.

G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 19. Compare W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 482 sqq.

915.

E. L. Meyer, Badisches Volksleben (Strasburg, 1900), p. 436.

916.

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. pp. 225 sqq., § 421; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 167 sq.

917.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 168.

918.

A. John, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen (Prague, 1905), p. 194.

919.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 445, § 162; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 168.

920.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 169.

921.

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. pp. 224 sq., § 420; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 169.

922.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 169.

923.

Ibid. p. 170.

924.

Ibid. p. 170. As to the custom of leaving a little corn on the field for the subsistence of the corn-spirit, see above, pp. 231 sqq.

925.

M. Praetorius, Deliciae Prussicae (Berlin, 1871), pp. 23 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 394 sq.

926.

A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xliv. (1900) p. 241.

927.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 58.

928.

Ibid.

929.

Ibid. p. 62.

930.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 59.

931.

Above, p. 275.

932.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 59.

933.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 440 sq., §§ 151, 152, 153; F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 234, § 428; W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 59.

934.

F. Panzer, op. cit. ii. p. 233, § 427; W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 59.

935.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. pp. 59 sq.

936.

Ibid. p. 58.

937.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 58 sq.

938.

Ibid. p. 60.

939.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, pp. 444 sq., § 162; W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 61.

940.

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 233, § 427.

941.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 61 sq.

942.

Ibid. p. 62.

943.

Ibid. p. 62.

944.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, pp. 445 sq., § 163.

945.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 60.

946.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 62.

947.

Above, pp. 150 sq.

948.

Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France (Paris, 1875), ii. 135.

949.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 62: “Il fait le veau.”

950.

Ibid.

951.

Ibid. p. 63.

952.

Ibid. p. 167.

953.

E. H. Meyer, Badisches Volksleben (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.

954.

J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 24, Bohn's edition.

955.

C. F. Burne and G. F. Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore (London, 1883), pp. 373 sq.

956.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 167. We may compare the Scotch custom of giving the last sheaf to a horse or mare to eat. See above, pp. 141, 156, 158, 160 sq., 162.

957.

Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France (Paris, 1875), ii. 133; W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 167 sq. We have seen (above, p. 267) that in South Pembrokeshire the man who cut the “Neck” used to be “shod,” that is, to have the soles of his feet severely beaten with sods. Perhaps he was thus treated as representing the corn-spirit in the form of a horse.

958.

G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.

959.

A. Peter, Völksthumliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 268.

960.

J. Lecoeur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 240.

961.

A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volks aberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 189, § 277; Chr. Schneller, Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 238; Rev. Ch. Swainson, The Folk Lore and Provincial Names of British Birds (London, 1886), p. 173.

962.

Alfred Newton, Dictionary of Birds, New Edition (London, 1893-1896), p. 755.

963.

A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xliv. (1900) pp. 228, 229; id., “De rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel,” Verslagen en Mededeelingen van der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, v., part 3 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 374 sq.

964.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 109 note 2.

965.

L. Pineau, Folk-lore du Poitou (Paris, 1892), pp. 500 sq.

966.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 109 sq., note 2.

967.

J. F. L. Woeste, Völksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 27; W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 110 note.

968.

Lafcadio Hearn, Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan (London, 1894), ii. 312 sqq.; W. G. Aston, Shinto (London, 1905), pp. 162 sq. At the festival of the Roman corn-goddess Ceres, celebrated on the nineteenth of April, foxes were allowed to run about with burning torches tied to their tails, and the custom was explained as a punishment inflicted on foxes because a fox had once in this way burned down the crops (Ovid, Fasti, iv. 679 sqq.). Samson is said to have burned the crops of the Philistines in a similar fashion (Judges xv. 4 sq.). Whether the custom and the tradition are connected with the idea of the fox as an embodiment of the corn-spirit is doubtful. Compare W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 108 sq.; W. Warde Fowler, Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1899), pp. 77-79.

969.

A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 213, § 4. So at Klepzig, in Anhalt (Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, vii. (1897) p. 150).

970.

J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107; W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 187.

971.

A. Birlinger, Aus Schwaben (Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 328.

972.

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. pp. 223, 224, §§ 417, 419.

973.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 112.

974.

E. L. Meyer, Badisches Volksleben (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 428, 436.

975.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebaüche aus Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 445, § 162.

976.

A. Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. p. 425, § 379.

977.

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. pp. 221-224, §§ 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 418.

978.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 186 sq.

979.

Above, p. 272; compare 268.

980.

Above, p. 298.

981.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 187.

982.

W. Mannhardt, op. cit. pp. 187 sq.; A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, pp. 189, 218; W. Kolbe, Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche (Marburg, 1888), p. 35.

983.

W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 188; W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People (London, 1872), p. 220.

984.

W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 197 sq.; F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 491; J. Jamieson, Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, New Edition (Paisley, 1879-1882), vol. iii. pp. 206 sq., s.v. “Maiden”; Arv. Aug. Afzelius, Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und neuerer Zeit, übersetzt von F. H. Ungewitter (Leipsic, 1842), i. 9.

985.

Above, p. 275.

986.

L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden (London, 1870), pp. 169 sq., 182. On Christmas night children sleep on a bed of the Yule straw (ibid. p. 177).

987.

U. Jahn, Die deutschen Opfergebräuche (Breslau, 1884), p. 215. Compare The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 17, 27 sq.

988.

A. A. Afzelius, op. cit. i. 31.

989.

A. A. Afzelius, op. cit. i. 9; L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, pp. 181, 185.

990.

J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), pp. 55 sq.

991.

F. J. Wiedemann, Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten (St. Petersburg, 1876), pp. 344, 485.

992.

Above, pp. 277 sq., 280, 281, 285, 290, 300, 301. In regard to the hare, the substitution of brandy for hare's blood is probably modern.

993.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen (Berlin, 1868), p. 1.

994.

R. Andree, “Die Pleiaden im Mythus und in ihrer Beziehung zum Jahresbeginn und Landbau,” Globus, lxiv. (1893) pp. 362-366.

995.

Mr. McKellar, quoted by the Rev. W. Ridley, “Report on Australian Languages and Traditions,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, ii. (1873) p. 279; id., Kamilaroi (Sydney, 1875), p. 138. Mr. McKellar's evidence was given before a Select Committee of the Legislative Council of Victoria in 1858; from which we may perhaps infer that his statement refers especially to the tribes of Victoria or at all events of south-eastern Australia. It seems to be a common belief among the aborigines of central and south-eastern Australia that the Pleiades are women who once lived on earth but afterwards went up into the sky. See W. E. Stanbridge, in Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, N.S. i. (1861) p. 302; P. Beveridge, “Of the Aborigines inhabiting the great Lacustrine and Riverine Depression of the Lower Murray,” etc., Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, xvii. (Sydney, 1884) p. 61; Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia (London, 1899), p. 566; id., Northern Tribes of Central Australia (London, 1904), p. 628; A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia (London, 1904), pp. 429 sq. Some tribes of Victoria believed that the Pleiades were originally a queen and six of her attendants, but that the Crow (Waa) fell in love with the queen and ran away with her, and that since then the Pleiades have been only six in number. See James Dawson, Australian Aborigines (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide, 1881), p. 100.

996.

J. Manning, “Notes on the Aborigines of New Holland,” Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, xvi. (Sydney, 1883) p. 168.

997.

James Dawson, Australian Aborigines, p. 75.

998.

M. Dobrizhoffer, Historia de Abiponibus (Vienna, 1784), ii. 118.

999.

M. Dobrizhoffer, op. cit. ii. 77 sq., 101-105.

1000.

Pedro de Angelis, Coleccion de Obras y Documentes relativos a la Historia antigua y moderna de las Provincias del Rio de la Plata (Buenos Ayres, 1836-1837), iv. 15.

1001.

P. Lozano, Descripcion chorographico del terreno, rios, arboles, y animales del Gran Chaco (Cordova, 1733). p. 67.

1002.

W. Barbrooke Grubb, An Unknown People in an Unknown Land (London, 1911), p. 139.

1003.

Pedro de Angelis, op. cit. iv. 14.

1004.

Th. Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker, iii. (Leipsic, 1862) p. 418, referring to Marcgrav de Liebstadt, Hist. rerum naturalium Brasil. (Amsterdam, 1648), viii. 5 and 12.

1005.

M. Dobrizhoffer, Historia de Abiponibus, ii. 104.

1006.

Th. Koch-Grünberg, Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern (Berlin, 1909-1910), ii. 203.

1007.

C. F. Phil. v. Martius, Zur Ethnographie Amerika's, zumal Brasiliens (Leipsic, 1867), p. 441.

1008.

Carl Teschauer, S.J., “Mythen und alte Volkssagen aus Brasilien,” Anthropos, i. (1906) p. 736.

1009.

J. Gumilla, Histoire Naturelle et Civile et Géographique de l'Orenoque (Avignon, 1758), iii. 254 sq.

1010.

E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, i. (Oxford, 1892) p. 492.

1011.

P. J. de Arriaga, Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru (Lima, 1621), pp. 11, 29 sq. According to Arriaga, the Peruvian name for the Pleiades is Oncoy.

1012.

Garcilasso de la Vega, First Part of the Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, translated by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (London, 1869-1871, Hakluyt Society), i. 275. Compare J. de Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies (London, 1880, Hakluyt Society), ii. 304.

1013.

E. Seler, Alt-Mexikanische Studien, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 166 sq., referring to Petrus Martyr, De nuper sub D. Carolo repertis insulis (Basileae, 1521), p. 15.

1014.

B. de Sahagun, Histoire Générale des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne (Paris, 1880), pp. 288 sq., 489 sqq.; A. de Herrera, General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii. 222; F. S. Clavigero, History of Mexico, translated by C. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 315 sq.; J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen (Bâle, 1867), pp. 519 sq.; H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America (London, 1875-1876), iii. 393-395.

1015.

Jean l'Heureux, “Ethnological Notes on the Astronomical Customs and Religious Ideas of the Chokitapia or Blackfeet Indians,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xv. (1886) pp. 301-303.

1016.

Walter McClintock, The Old North Trail (London, 1910), p. 490.

1017.

J. Walter Fewkes, “The Tusayan New Fire Ceremony,” Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, xxvi. (1895) p. 453.

1018.

Rev. W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), i. 87.

1019.

Rev. W. W. Gill, Myths and Songs from the South Pacific (London, 1876), p. 43.

1020.

Rev. W. W. Gill, op. cit. p. 317, compare p. 44.

1021.

G. Turner, Samoa (London, 1884), p. 279.

1022.

E. Shortland, Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders, Second Edition (London, 1856), p. 219.

1023.

The United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology, by Horatio Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 170; E. Tregear, Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary (Wellington, N.Z., 1891), p. 226.

1024.

Rev. R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891), p. 348. In the island of Florida the Pleiades are called togo ni samu, “the company of maidens” (op. cit. p. 349).

1025.

H. B. Guppy, The Solomon Islands and their Natives (London, 1887), p. 56.

1026.

A. C. Haddon, “Legends from Torres Straits,” Folk-lore, i. (1890) p. 195. We may conjecture that the “new yam time” means the time for planting yams.

1027.

R. Neuhauss, Deutsch Neu-Guinea (Berlin, 1911), pp. 159, 431 sq.

1028.

A. F. van Spreeuwenberg, “Een blik op de Minahassa,” Tijdschrift voor Neerlands Indië, Vierde Deel (Batavia, 1845), p. 316; J. G. F. Riedel, “De landschappen Holontalo, Limoeto, Bone, Boalemo, en Kattinggola, of Andagile,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xix. (1869) p. 140; id., in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, iii. (1871) p. 404.

1029.

Spenser St. John, Life in the Forests of the Far East, Second Edition (London, 1863), i. 214. Compare H. Low, Sarawak (London, 1848), p. 251.

1030.

Dr. Charles Hose, “Various Modes of computing the Time for Planting among the Races of Borneo,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 42 (Singapore, 1905), pp. 1 sq. Compare Charles Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak (London, 1866), i. 59; Rev. J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p. 229.

1031.

Dr. Charles Hose, op. cit. p. 4. Compare id., “The Natives of Borneo,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiii. (1894) pp. 168 sq., where the writer tells us that the Kayans and many other races in Borneo sow the rice when the Pleiades appear just above the horizon at daybreak, though the Kayans more usually determine the time for sowing by observation of the sun. As to the Kayan mode of determining the time for sowing by the length of shadow cast by an upright pole, see also W. Kükenthal, Forschungsreise in den Molukken und in Borneo (Frankfort, 1896), pp. 292 sq. Some Dyaks employ a species of sun-dial for dating the twelve months of the year. See H. E. D. Engelhaard, “Aanteekeningen betreffende de Kindjin Dajaks in het Landschap Baloengan,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxix. (1897) pp. 484-486.

1032.

A. W. Nieuwenhuis, Quer durch Borneo (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 160.

1033.

F. K. Ginzel, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, i. (Leipsic, 1906) p. 424.

1034.

R. Friederich, “Voorloopig Verslag van het eiland Bali,” Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, xxiii. (1849) p. 49.

1035.

J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias en deszelfs Bewoners,” Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) p. 119.

1036.

W. Marsden, History of Sumatra, Third Edition (London, 1811), p. 71.

1037.

F. K. Ginzel, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, i. (Leipsic, 1906) p. 428.

1038.

S. Krascheninnikow, Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka (Lemgo, 1766), p. 217. The three stars are probably the Belt.

1039.

See above, vol. i. p. 116.

1040.

Rev. J. Macdonald, Light in Africa, Second Edition (London, 1890), pp. 194 sq. Compare J. Sechefo, “The Twelve Lunar Months among the Basuto,” Anthropos, iv. (1909) p. 931.

1041.

G. McCall Theal, Records of South-Eastern Africa, vii. (1901) p. 418. Compare G. Thompson, Travels and Adventures in Southern Africa (London, 1827), ii. 359.

1042.

Rev. H. Callaway, The Religious System of the Amazulu, Part iii. (London, etc., 1870), p. 397.

1043.

R. Moffat, Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa (London, 1842), pp. 337 sq.

1044.

Stephen Kay, Travels and Researches in Caffraria (London, 1833), p. 273.

1045.

Gustav Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrika's (Breslau, 1872). p. 340.

1046.

Theophilus Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi (London, 1881), p. 43, quoting the Moravian missionary George Schmidt, who was sent out to the Cape of Good Hope in 1737.

1047.

H. S. Stannus, “Notes on some Tribes of British Central Africa,” Journal of the R. Anthropological Institute, xl. (1910) p. 289.

1048.

M. Merker, Die Masai (Berlin, 1894), pp. 155, 198.

1049.

May.

1050.

June-August.

1051.

A. C. Hollis, The Masai (Oxford, 1905), p. 275, compare p. 333. The “season of showers” seems to be a name for the dry season (June, July, August), when rain falls only occasionally; it is thus distinguished from the rainy season of winter, which begins after the reappearance of the Pleiades in September.

1052.

A. C. Hollis, The Masai, pp. 275 sq.

1053.

A. C. Hollis, The Nandi (Oxford, 1909), p. 100.

1054.

C. W. Hobley, “Further Researches into Kikuyu and Kamba Religious Beliefs and Customs,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xli. (1911) p. 442.

1055.

Thomas Winterbottom, An Account of the Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone (London, 1803), p. 48.

1056.

Hesiod, Works and Days, 383 sq., 615 sqq. See above, pp. 45, 48.

1057.

Aratus, Phaenomena, 264-267; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ii. 123, 125, xviii. 280, “Vergiliae privatim attinent ad fructus, ut quarum exortu aestas incipiat, occasu hiems, semenstri spatio intra se messes vindemiasque et omnium maturitatem conplexae.” Compare L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 241 sq. Pliny dated the rising of the Pleiades on the 10th of May and their setting on the 11th of November (Nat. Hist. ii. 123, 125).

1058.

Pliny, Nat. Hist. xviii. 49 and 223.

1059.

See above, p. 307.

1060.

Geminus, Elementa Astronomiae, xvii. 10 sqq. If “the sweet influences of the Pleiades” in the Authorised Version of the English Bible were an exact translation of the corresponding Hebrew words in Job xxxviii. 31, we should naturally explain the “sweet influences” by the belief that the autumnal setting of the constellation is the cause of rain. But the rendering of the words is doubtful; it is not even certain that the constellation referred to is the Pleiades. See the commentaries of A. B. Davidson and Professor A. S. Peak on the passage. The Revised English Version translates the words in question “the cluster of the Pleiades.” Compare H. Grimme, Das israelitische Pfingstfest und der Plejadenkult (Paderborn, 1907), pp. 61 sqq.