NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN “THE CHAUTAUQUAN.”

FRENCH HISTORY.

P. 377, c. 1.—“Voltaire,” vol-têrˈ. (1694-1778.) French author.

“Rousseau,” Jean Jacques, rooˌsōˈ. (1712-1778.) French philosopher and writer.

“Montesquieu,” mŏnˈtĕs-kūˌ. (1689-1755.) French jurist and philosopher.

“D’Alembert,” däˈlŏnˌbêrˌ. (1717-1783.) French mathematician.

P. 377, c. 2.—“Maria Theresa,” ma-rīˈa te-reeˈsä. (1717-1780.) Empress of Germany and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia.

“Turgot,” türˌgoˈ. (1727-1781.) At the time of his appointment to the control of finance, Turgot had won a fine reputation by his papers on political economy, tolerance in governing, and like subjects. He at once undertook to carry out his views, abolishing all taxes save those on land, doing away with compulsory labor for the state, the privileges of trading corporations and the like; this made him very unpopular among the favored classes, and Louis was forced to dismiss him.

“Necker,” nĕkˈer. (1732-1804.) Necker’s policy was to restore order and confidence. He restrained the prodigality of the court, cut down the expenses of the government, regulated taxes, and laid the foundation of the Bank of France. After his final withdrawal from France, Necker lived in Geneva, where he wrote several essays. It is said that on the accession of Bonaparte to power he attempted to obtain the position of minister of finance, but was rejected.

“Ushant,” ushˈant. The largest of the Ouessant Isles, off the coast of the department of Finisterre in France.

“D’Estaings,” dĕsˌtănˈ. (1729-1794.) He was brought up to military service, was twice taken prisoner by the English but released, and in 1763 was appointed lieutenant-general of the navy. D’Estaings was sent to the United States in 1778, where he planned attacks on New York and Newport, but was unsuccessful in both. After the campaign in the West Indies he coöperated with the Americans in an attack upon Savannah, but was wounded.

“Granada,” “St. Lucia,” “St. Vincent.” Three islands of the Windward group of the West Indies.

“Langara,” läˈgä-rä. (1730-1800.)

“De Guichen,” deh-gēˈshonˌ. (1712-1790.) A French naval officer, made lieutenant-general in 1779. The next year after the victory here given he was defeated by the English.

“De Grasse,” deh gräs. (1723-1788.) Count de Grasse served in the American war, and in 1781 aided Washington and Lafayette in the capture of Cornwallis.

“Hood.” (1724-1816.) He entered the navy at sixteen. In 1780 he was made second in command in the West Indies. The year after his defeat he defeated De Grasse and was made a baron. In 1793 he commanded the English in the Mediterranean against the French, and in 1796 was made a viscount.

“Tobago,” to-bāˈgo. An island of the Windward group of the West Indies.

P. 378, c. 1.—“Ville de Paris.” The city of Paris.

“Crillon,” kreˈyonˌ. (1718-1796.) A lieutenant-general in the Seven Years’ War, and afterward captain-general of Spain.

“Senegal,” senˈe-gawlˌ. A river of western Africa.

“Calonne,” kăˌlonˈ. (1734-1802.) Calonne had been a law student and a courtier, when appointed to succeed Necker. After his dismissal he went to London, where he wrote many able political and financial tracts.

“Brienne,” breˌënˈ. (1727-1794.) Brienne was an archbishop and a member of the academy when he succeeded Calonne.

P. 378, c. 2.—“En Masse.” In a body.

“Desmoulins,” dāˌmooˌlănˈ. (1762-1794.) A schoolmate of Robespierre, and a partisan of the Revolution. He was called the “Attorney-General of the lamp post,” for his share in street mobs.

“Launay,” lōˈna. He was massacred immediately after the capture of the place.

“Condé,” kŏnˈdāˌ (1736-1818); “Polignac,” poˈlēnˌyäkˌ; “Noailles,” noˈäl; “Seignioral,” seenˈyur-al. Lordly, kingly; belonging to a seignior.

P. 379, c. 1.—“Sièyes,” se-yāsˈ. (1748-1836.) At the beginning of the Revolution Sièyes wrote a pamphlet which placed him at the head of the publicists. He was a member of the Assembly, of the Convention, and in 1799 of the Directory. When the new régime began he was one of the three consuls, but soon after lost his influence, which he never regained.

“Robespierre,” roˈbes-peer. (1758-1794.) He was educated for the law, and practicing, when in 1789 he was sent to the States-General. His radical democratic views gained him a prominent place. He afterward was a member of the Assembly, and in 1792 was elected to the Convention. He became the leader of one party there, and was instrumental in bringing on the Reign of Terror, of which he was the acknowledged head. His cruelty at last turned the people against him, and he was guillotined in 1794.

“Mirabeau,” mĭrˈa-bō. (1749-1791.) He was descended from a family of high rank, but was passionate and uncontrolled. Until 1788 his life was spent in all sorts of employments and intrigues. At that time he made up his mind to enter French politics, and succeeded in getting himself elected to the States-General of 1789. In 1791 he was elected president of the National Assembly, but died soon after, a victim to excess.

“Œil-de-Bœuf,” eel-deh-bŭf.

P. 379, c. 2.—“Chalons,” shäˌlōnˈ; “Menehould,” māˌnāˈhō.

“Bouillé,” booˈyā. (1739-1800.)

“Varennes,” väˈrenˌ.

“Rochambeau,” roˈshŏnˌbō. (1725-1807.) A French marshal. In early life he fought in several minor campaigns. In 1780 he was sent to the United States with 6,000 men, and the next year fought at Yorktown.

“Dumouriez,” düˌmooˈre-ā. (1739-1823.) After the battle of Jemappes, the convention being jealous of Dumouriez’s loyalty to the Bourbons, summoned him to their bar. He refused to go, and was obliged to spend the rest of his life in exile.

“Verdun,” vĕrˈdun; “Longwy,” lōngˌveˈ.

“Custine,” küsˌtēnˈ. (1740-1793.)

“Jemappes,” zhem-map.

P. 380, c. 1.—“Fédérés,” fāˈdāˌrāˌ; “Abbaye,” ă-bāˈ; “Conciergerie,” konˌcerˈjaˌreˌ; “Carmes,” kärm; “Bicêtre,” beˈcātrˌ. The names of famous French prisons.

“Lamballe,” lŏnˌbälˈ. (1749-1792.)

“Sombreuil,” sŏnˌbrulˈ. The sister of an officer prominent in support of the Royalists.

“Cazotte,” käˈzotˌ. Jacques Cazotte, her father, was a French poet.

P. 380, c. 2.—“Égalité,” ā-găˈle-tā.

“Vergniaud,” verˌyne-ōˈ. (1759-1793.)

P. 381, c. 1.—“Marat,” mäˈrä. (1744-1793.) Before the Revolution Marat had practiced medicine. In 1789 he gained great popularity among the Revolutionists by his journal, The Friend of the People. After his election in 1792 to the Convention and the formation of the triumvirate with Danton and Robespierre, he wielded great power by his decisive opinions.

“Danton,” dänˌtonˈ. (1759-1794.) He was a lawyer by profession. At the beginning of the Revolution he became a popular leader and orator. When the supreme power fell into the hands of the triumvirate Danton was elected minister of justice, thus having chief control of the city. Afterward he was elected to the Convention, where he became a prominent leader, but excited the jealousy of Robespierre. The latter triumphed in the contest for the first rank, and Danton was guillotined. Lamartine says of him: “Nothing was wanting to make Danton a great man, except virtue.”

P. 381, c. 2.—“Corday,” korˌdaˈ. (1768-1793.)

P. 382, c. 1.—“Aboukir,” ä-boo-keerˈ.

“Tuileries,” tü-eel-rē. A royal palace of Paris.

“D’Enghien,” dŏnˌ-gănˈ. (1772-1804.) “Eylau,” īˈlou; “Friedland,” frēdˈland.

COMMERCIAL LAW.

P. 384, c. 1.—“Misfeasance,” mis-fēˈzans. A wrong act.

P. 384, c. 2. “In transitu.” On the passage.

READINGS IN ART.

P. 384, c. 2.—“Cimabue,” che-mä-booˈā. (1240?-1302?) Called “the father of modern painting.”

P. 385, c. 1.—“Navicella,” năv-i-celˈla. The name of the mosaic, meaning the little ship.

“Assisi,” as-seeˈsee. A picturesque town of central Italy, chiefly noted as the birthplace of St. Francis, who founded the Franciscan order of monks.

“Podestà,” po-des-tāˈ. In 1207 the chief executive power of Florence was put into the hands of a single officer called the podesta; hence the reference is to the chief magistrate’s palace.

“Chiaro-scuro,” chi-äˌro-ŏs-cuˈro. The effective distribution of lights and shades in a picture.

“Guido di Pietro,” gweeˈdo de pe-aˈtrō.

“Fiesole,” fyesˈo-lā. A town of Italy, near Florence.

“Vicchio,” vekˈkee-o; “Mugello,” mu-gelˈlō.

P. 385, c. 2.—“Orvieto,” or-ve-āˈto. A town of central Italy, not far from Perugia.

“Luca Signorelli,” luˈca sēn-yo-relˈlee. (1439-1521.) An Italian painter, a nephew of Vasari. His frescoes are his most noteworthy pieces.

“Scudi,” skōoˈdee. The plural of scudo, an Italian coin used in Italy and Sicily, and worth about 96 cents.

“Santa Maria delle Grazie,” sänˈtä mä-reeˈä delˈlā grätˈse-ā.

“Marco d’Oggione,” marˈco dōd-goˈnā. (1470-1530.) A pupil of Leonardo. He made two copies of “The Last Supper”—his most important works.

P. 386, c. 1.—“Cloux,” clou; “Amboise,” almost ŏnbˈwīzˌ. A town on the Loire, in western central France.

“Vasari,” vä-säˈree. (1512-1574.) A pupil of Michaelangelo, and a successful painter. His fame rests on his “Lives of the most excellent Painters, Architects and Sculptors,” one of the most valuable books ever written on the subject.

“Trattato,” etc. Treatise on painting.

“Castel Caprese.” käs-telˈ kä-presˈā; “Arezzo,” ä-retˈso.

“Ghirlandaio,” gĕr-län-däˈyo. (1451-1495.) A painter famous for his invention. His chief works, “The Massacre of the Infants” and “The Death of St. Francis” are still preserved in the Sistine chapel.

“Fuseli,” fūˈseh-le. (1742-1825.) A celebrated historical painter.

“Monochrome,” mŏnˈo-chrōme. A painting with a single color.

P. 386, c. 2.—“Sandro Botticelli,” bot-te-chelˈlee. (1440-1515.) An eminent Italian painter. His frescoes in the chapel of the Vatican are his most powerful works.

“Cosimo Rosselli,” ro-selˈlee. (1439-1506.)

“Perugino,” pā-roo-jeeˈnō. (1446-1524.) The master of Raphael. He received his name, “The Perugian,” from the work which he did at Perugia, where there still exist some of his best frescoes.

“Raffaello Sanzio,” rä-fä-ĕˈlō sänˈze-o; “Pinturicchio,” pēn-too-rēkˈke-o. (1454-1513.)

P. 387, c. 1.—“Francia,” fränˈchä. (1450-1533?) A celebrated Italian painter.

“Fra Bartholommeo,” barˈto-lo-māˌō.

For help in pronouncing the Italian names which are so numerous in this paper, we give a set of simple rules for Italian vowels and consonants.

A like a in father.

E like e in met, more prolonged and open at the close of a syllable.

I like ee in feet.

O. Pronounce roll and stop on the middle of the word, and it is precisely the Italian o.

U like oo in root.

C or g followed by a, o or u, as in English, but followed by e or i, c has the sound of ch as in cherry, and g is like g in gem.

Gn is like ni in poniard.

Gl as in English, except before i, when it has the sound of ll in brilliant.

S at the beginning of a word has the hissing sound, as between two vowels, or followed by b, d, r or v, is pronounced like z.

Sc, followed by e or i, like sh.

Z like dz in words which have z in the English word; like tz when preceded by l or r, or followed by two vowels, and in nouns ending in zzo.

Single consonants are generally soft; double consonants are pronounced in one sound, but stronger and more marked than when single.

SELECTIONS FROM AMERICAN LITERATURE.

P. 393, c. 2.—“En bloc.” In a lump.

“Genre.” A style; a peculiar kind or species.

“Du Maurier,” dü mōˈre-a. An English caricaturist who for over twenty years has been connected with Punch.