ART OF TRAVEL. (continued 2)

In the first place it is absolutely necessary that one of the cutters should be made in the form of a pick, as this is by far the best instrument for hacking into hard ice, and is also extremely convenient for holding on to a snow-slope, or hooking into crannies, or on to ledges of rock.

For the other cutter we recommend an adze-shaped blade, and we are convinced that this is the form which will be found most generally useful, as being best suited for all the varieties of step-cutting. The hatchet-shaped blade used by the Chamouni guides is no doubt a better implement for making a staircase diagonally up a slope, but on the other hand it is exceedingly difficult to cut steps downwards with a blade set on in this manner; and as mountaineers rarely come down the way by which they went up, if they can help it, it is obvious that this objection to the Chamouni form of axe is conclusive.

We recommend that the edge of the blade should be angular instead of circular, although the latter shape is more common, because it is clear that the angular edge cuts into frozen snow more quickly and easily.

The curve, which is the same in all the axes, approaches to coincidence with the curve described by the axe in making the stroke. A curve is, in our opinion, desirable, in order to bring the point more nearly opposite the centre of percussion, and to make the head more useful for holding on to rocks or a slope.

The axe shown in diagram No. 2, though slightly heavier than No. 1, is not of sufficient weight or strength for cutting a series of steps in hard ice. To those gentlemen, therefore, who do not object to carrying weight, but who desire to have an axe fit for any kind of work, we recommend No. 3. As this is exactly similar in shape to No. 2, differing from it only in size, we have not thought it necessary to give a separate diagram of No. 3.

As to the mode of fastening, which is the same in all three axes, we should have felt some diffidence in giving an opinion had we not been fortunate enough to obtain the advice of an experienced metal-worker, by whom we were strongly recommended to adopt the fastening shown in the diagrams, as being the method generally considered best in the trade for attaching the heads of hatchets, or large hammers likely to be subjected to very violent strains. It will be seen that the axe-head and fastening are forged in one solid piece, the fastening consisting of two strong braces or straps of steel, which are pressed into the wood about one-eighth of an inch, and are secured by two rivets, passed through the wood and clenched on each side. The braces are put at the side, instead of in front of and behind the axe, because by this means, the strain which falls on the axe acts against the whole breadth of the steel fastenings, and not against their thickness merely.

We believe that this is the firmest method of fastening which can be adopted, and that so long as the wood is sound, it is scarcely possible for the head of the axe to get loose or to come off; and it has the further advantage of strengthening the wood instead of weakening it, and of distributing the strain produced by step-cutting over a large bearing. It should be added that these axe-heads and fastenings ought to be made entirely of steel.

We much desired to recommend to the Club some means by which the axe-head might be made moveable, so as to be capable of being put on and taken off the handle quickly and easily. We regret to say, however, that we were unable to discover any plan by which this can be effectually done. We examined very carefully the numerous and formidable weapons which have been sent in by members for exhibition, most of which had elaborate contrivances for fastening on the axe-head. These were all, however, liable to very serious objections. Some were evidently insecure; with others it was necessary that the axe-head should be surmounted by a huge knob, which would prove a most serious impediment in step-cutting; while in the best and firmest which we found, the axe-head was attached to the pole by means of nuts and screws projecting at the side or over the top of the axe. This latter method of fastening seems to us awkward and possibly dangerous, as the nuts, from their position, are very likely to become loose or to get broken off, and cannot, except when dangerously loose, be fastened or unfastened without a key or wrench--a troublesome article, certain to be lost on the first expedition.

The Handle of the Axe should, we think, be made of ash. We recommend this wood in preference to deal, which is lighter and nearly as strong, because in choosing a piece of ash it is easier to select with certainty thoroughly sound and well-seasoned wood; and in preference to hickory and lance-wood, which are stronger, because these woods are extremely heavy.

The handle should, we believe, be of a very slightly oval form, as it is then more convenient to the grasp than if round. As to the thickness of the wood, we are satisfied it ought nowhere to be less than 1 3/8 inch, since a pole of that diameter, made of ordinarily good ash, is the smallest which cannot be permanently bent by a heavy man's most violent effort; although we have seen some pieces of unusually strong ash of a less thickness, which proved inflexible.

We recommend, then, that the oval section of the handle should have a shorter diameter of 1 3/8 inch, and a longer diameter of 1 1/2 inch, and that the thickness should be the same from one end to the other. The length of the handles for Nos. 1 and 2 should be such that they will reach to just under the arm at the shoulder. The handle for No. 3, which is intended to be used exclusively as an axe, should be between 3 1/2 and 4 feet long. The lower end of the handle should be strengthened in the usual way by a ferrule, and armed with a spike.

The spike should be from 3 1/2 to 4 inches long, clear of the end of the handle, and should be prevented from moving by a slight rivet passed through it near the upper end after it is fastened in. The exact form of the spike and ferrule are represented in the diagram.

We have further to recommend for axe-handles an addition which is liable to suspicion as an entire innovation, but which, we are confident, will be found valuable at those critical moments when the axe is required to hold up two or three men. It has happened that when the axe has been struck into the snow a man has been unable to keep his hold of the handle, which slips out of his hand, and leaves him perfectly helpless. To guard against this mischance, we propose to fasten a band of leather round the handle, at a distance of a foot from the ferrule at the lower end. This leather should be about an eighth of an inch thick, and will be quite sufficient to check the hand when it is sliding down the handle. It should be lashed round the wood and strained tight when wet.

Alpenstocks.--What we have said about the handle of the axe applies in all respects to the Alpenstock, except that the length of the latter should be different, and that the leathern ring would of course not be required. It is generally thought most convenient that the Alpenstock should be high enough to touch the chin of its owner, as he stands upright; but this is a matter on which it is scarcely possible, and, were it possible, scarcely necessary to lay down an absolute rule. [End of extract of report]

Boots.--Several nails are sure to be knocked out after each hard day's work, therefore a reserve supply is necessary in lands where none other are to be found. No makeshift contrivance, so far as I am aware, will replace the iron last used by shoemakers when they hammer nails into the boot. There is a well-known contrivance of screws with jagged heads, for screwing into boots when a little ice has to be crossed. They do excellently for occasional purposes, but not for regular ice-work, as they are easily torn out. Crampons are soles of leather with spikes; they are tied over the shoes, but neither English mountaineers nor modern guides ever employ them: nailed boots are better.

Snow Spectacles.--The Esquimaux, who have no coloured glass, or any equivalent for it, cut a piece of soft wood to the curvature of the face; it is about two inches thick, and extends horizontally quite across both eyes, resting on the nose, a notch being cut in the wood to answer the purpose of the bridge of a pair of spectacles. It is tied behind the ears; and, so far as I have now described it would exclude every ray of light from the eyes. Next, a long narrow slit, of the thickness of a thin saw-cut, is made along the middle almost from end to end. Through this slit the wearer can see very fairly. As it is narrower than the diameter of the pupil of his eye, the light that reaches his retina is much diminished in quantity. Crape or gauze is a substitute for coloured glass.

Mask.--Is merely a pocket-handkerchief, with strings to tie it over the face; eye-holes are cut in it, also a hole for the nose, over which a protecting triangular piece of linen is thrown, and another hole opposite the mouth, to breathe through it is drawn below the chin so as to tie firmly in place. The mask prevents the face from being cut to pieces by the cold dry winds, and blistered by the powerful rays of the sun reverberated from the snow.

CATTLE.

Happy is the traveller who has the opportunity of hiring his cattle with their attendants: for his delay and cares are then reduced to those of making a bargain, and of riding what he has hired; and when one set of animals is tired or worn out, he can leave them behind and ride on with others. But, for the most part, explorers must drive their own beasts with them: they must see to their being watered, tended, and run after when astray; help to pack and harness them; fatigue themselves for their benefit; and drudge at the work of a cowherd for some hours a day.

In fitting out a caravan, as few different kinds of animals should be taken as possible, or they will split into separate herds, and require many men to look after them.

The dispositions of the animals that compose a caravan affect, in no small degree, the pleasure of travelling with it. Now, it is to be noticed that men attach themselves to horses and asses, and in a lesser degree to mules and oxen, but they rarely make friends of camels.

Weights carried by Cattle.--The net weights that these different animals carry in trying, long-continued journeys--through stages uncertain in length, sometimes leading to good pasture, sometimes to bad--must not be reckoned higher than the following; and an animal draws about 2 1/2 times as much net weight as he carries:--An ass, 65 lbs.; a small mule, 90 lbs.; a horse lbs.; an ox lbs.; a camel lbs. to 200 lbs.; elephant lbs. In level countries--where there is grain, and where the road is known and a regularity in the day's work can be ensured--the weights that may be carried are fully double those of the above list. Captain Burton's donkeys, in East Africa, carried immense weights. Dogs will draw a "travail" (which see) of 60 lbs. for a distance of 15 miles a day, upon hard level country.

Theory of Loads and Distances.--How should we load men or animals of transport, and how should we urge them, in order to obtain the largest amount of effective labour? If they carry a mere feather-weight, they may make long days' journeys; but their value, as animals of transport, is almost nothing. Again, on the other hand, if we load them with an excessive weight, they will soon come to a standstill; and in this case, as in the first, their value as beasts of transport is almost nil. What then, is that moderate load by which we shall obtain the largest amount of "useful effect"? this is a problem which many of the ablest engineers and philosophers have endeavoured to solve; and the formulae--partly based on theory and partly on experiment--which were used by Euler, are generally accepted as a fair approximation. They are very simple, and peculiarly interesting on account of their wide applicability. They are equally true for men, animals, or machines; and are wholly independent of the way in which the power is applied: whether, for instance, a man carries his burden, or draws it, or rows or punts it in a boat, or winds it up with a crank or tread-mill.

Travellers might well turn the theory to account on their own behalf; they are well situated for testing its truthfulness, by observing the practices of the countries in which they are travelling. Reliable facts upon the extreme distances that can be travelled over, day after day, by people carrying different loads, but equally circumstanced in every other respect, would be very acceptable to me.

The formulae are as follow:--Let b be the burden which would just suffice to prevent an animal from moving a step; d the distance he could travel daily if unloaded. Also, let b1 be some burden less than b; and let d1 be the distance to which he could travel daily when carrying b1.

Then b1 d2 = b(d-d1)2. (1)

Again, the "useful effect" is a maximum, if b1d1 is a maximum. When this is the case, then

b1 = 4/9 b. (2)

And

3 d1 = d. (3)

In other words, an animal gets through most work in the day if he carries 4/9 of the greatest load he could just stagger under; in which case he will be able to travel 1/3 of the distance he could walk if he carried no load at all. (Machinery requires no repose; and therefore d, the distance per day, is convertible into v, the velocity of movement.)

As an example:--Suppose a man is able to walk 10 miles a day, with a load of 130 lbs., and 33 miles a day when he carries nothing. Then, from equation (1), the value of b (the burden under which he would be brought to a standstill) would be about 267 1/2; and the best load for him, from equation (2), would be 119 lbs., which he would be able to carry, according to equation (3), 11 miles a day.

Horses.--The mode of taking wild horses is by throwing the lasso, whilst pursuing them at full speed, and dropping a noose over their necks, by which their speed is soon checked, and they are choked down.

Mr. Rarey's sixpenny book tells all that can be told on the subject of horse-breaking; but far more lies in the skill and horse-knowledge of the operator, than in the mere theory. His way of mastering a vicious horse is by taking up one fore-foot, bending the knee, slipping a loop over the knee until it comes to the pastern-joint, and then fixing it tight. The loop must be caused to embrace the part between the hoof and the pastern-joint firmly, by the help of a strap of some kind, lest it should slip. The horse is now on three legs, and he feels conquered. If he gets very mad, wait leisurely till he becomes quiet, then caress him, and let the leg down and allow him to rest; then repeat the process. If the horse kicks in harness, drive him slowly on three legs.

In breaking-in a stubborn beast, it is convenient to physic him until he is sick and out of spirits, or to starve him into submission.

Salt keeps horses from straying, if they are accustomed to come up to the camp and get it. But it is a bad plan as they are apt to hang about, instead of going off to feed. They are so fond of salt, that they have been known to stray back to a distant house where they had been allowed to lick it.

Shooting Horse.--Spur him as much as you will, but never use a whip; else, whenever you raise your gun to fire, he will feel a dread that it may be the whip, and will be unsteady.

Horse neighing.--Mungo Park tells how he clutched his horse's muzzle with both hands to prevent his neighing, when he was in concealment and horsemen were passing near.

Addenda.--In climbing a steep hill hang on to the tail of your horse as you walk behind him. Horses are easily driven in file by securing the halter of each horse to the tail of the one before him. To swim horses across a river, to sleep by their side when there is danger, to tether them, and to water them from wells, are all described elsewhere. (See "Horses" in index.)

Mules.--Mules require men who know their habits; they are powerful beats, and can only be mastered with skill and address. A savage will not assist in packing them, for he fears their heels: the Swiss say mules have always an arriere-pensee. They have odd secret ways, strange fancies, and lurking vice. When they stray, they go immense distances; and it is almost beyond the power of a man on foot to tend them in a wild country: he can neither overtake them easily, nor, when overtaken, catch them. The female is, in most breeds, much the more docile. They suffer from African distemper, but in a less degree than horses. The following descriptions of mule caravans are exceedingly graphic and instructive:--"The madrina (or godmother) is a most important personage. She is an old steady mare, with a little bell round her neck, and wheresoever she goes the mules, like good children, follow her. If several large troops are turned into one field to graze in the morning, the muleteer has only to lead the madrinas a little apart and tinkle their bells, and, although there may be 200 or 300 mules together, each immediately knows its own bell, and separates itself from the rest. The affection of these animals for their madrina saves infinite trouble. It is nearly impossible to lose an old mule: for, if detained several hours by force, she will, by the power of smell, like a dog, track out her companions, or rather the madrina; for, according to the muleteer, she is the chief object of affection. The feeling, however, is not of an individual nature; for I believe I am right in saying that any animal with a bell will serve as a madrina." (Charles Darwin.)

"After travelling about 14 miles, we were joined by three miners; and our mules, taking a sudden liking for their horses, jogged on at a more brisk rate. The instincts of the mulish heart form an interesting study to the traveller in the mountains. I would (were the comparison not too ungallant) liken it to a woman's; for it is quite as uncertain in its sympathies, bestowing its affections when least expected, and, when bestowed, quite as constant, so long as the object is not taken away. Sometimes a horse, sometimes an ass, captivates the fancy of a whole drove of mules, but often an animal nowise akin. Lieutenant Beale told me that his whole train of mules once galloped off suddenly, on the plains of the Cimarone, and ran half a mile, when they halted in apparent satisfaction. The cause of their freak was found to be a buffalo-calf, which had strayed from the herd. They were frisking around it in the greatest delight, rubbing their noses against it, throwing up their heels, and making themselves ridiculous by abortive attempts to neigh and bray; while the poor calf, unconscious of its attractive qualities, stood trembling in their midst. It is customary to have a horse in the mule-trains of the traders of North Mexico, as a sort of magnet to keep together the separate atoms of the train, for, whatever the temptation, they will never stray from him." (Taylor's 'Eldorado.')

Asses.--Notwithstanding his inveterate obstinacy, the ass is an excellent and sober little beast, far too much despised by us. He is not only the most enduring, but also one of the quickest walkers among cattle, being usually promoted to the leadership of a caravan. He is nearly equal to the camel in enduring thirst, and thrives on the poorest pasture, suffers from few diseases, and is unscathed by African distemper. The long desert-roads and pilgrim-tracts of North Africa are largely travelled over by means of asses.

Asses taught not to kick.--Mungo Park says that the negroes, where he travelled, taught their asses as follows:--They cut a forked stick, and put the forked part into the ass's mouth, like the bit of a bridle; they then tied the two smaller parts together above his head, leaving the lower part of sufficient length to strike against the ground if the ass should attempt to put his head down. It always proved effectual.

Not to bray.--Messrs. Huc and Gabet, who were distracted by the continual braying of one of their asses throughout the night, appealed to their muleteer: he put a speedy close to the nuisance by what appears to be a customary contrivance in China, viz., by lashing a heavy stone to the beast's tail. It appears that when an ass wants to bray he elevates his tail, and, if his tail be weighted down, he has not the heart to bray. In hostile neighbourhoods, where silence and concealment are sought, it might be well to adopt this rather absurd treatment. An ass who was being schooled according to the method of this and the preceding paragraph, both at the same time, would be worthy of an artist's sketch.

Oxen.--Though oxen are coarse, gross, and phlegmatic beasts, they have these merits: they are eminently gregarious, and they ruminate their food. The consequence is, first, that one, two, or more, are very seldom missing out of a drove; and, secondly, that they pick up what they require, in a much shorter time than horses, mules, etc., who have to chew as they eat. Oxen require less tending than any other beasts of burden.

To train a Pack-ox.--An ox of any age, however wild he may be, can be broken in, in three or four days, so as to carry a pack of about 70 lbs.; though it is true that he will frequently kick it off during the journey, and give excessive trouble. It would be scarcely possible to drive more than three of these newly-taught oxen at a time, on account of the frequent delays caused by the unruliness of one or other of them. Muich depends on the natural aptitude of the animal in estimating the time required for making a steady pack-ox, some will carry a good weight and go steadily after only a fortnight's travel; some will never learn. But in all cases they prove unruly at the beginning of a journey.

To break-in an ox, take a long thong or cord, make a noose at one end of it, and let two or three men lay hold of the other; then, driving all the herd together in a clump, go in among them and, aided by a long stick, push or slip the noose round the hind leg of the ox that you want, and draw tight. He will pull and struggle with all his might, and the other oxen will disperse, leaving him alone dragging the men about after him. Next, let another man throw a noose round his horns, and the beast is, comparatively speaking, secured. It is now convenient to throw the animal down on his side, which is easily done by the judicious tugging at his tail and at the thongs. To keep him on the ground, let one man take the tail, and, passing it round one thigh, hold him down by that, while one or two men force the horns down against the ground. His nose has next to be pierced. A stick, shaped like a Y, eight inches long, is cut of some tough wood; and the foot of it, being first sharpened, is forcibly poked through the wall that divides the nostrils, and a thin thong is tied firmly to either end of this nose-stick. The thong is gathered together, and wound in a figure of 8 round the two horns, where it henceforward remains while the animal feeds, and by clutching at which, he is at any time caught.

Next for the packing: as the ox lies on the ground, scrape a hole in the sand under his belly, and then, having laid a few skins on his back, pass a thong round him and them, several times; tie the ends fast, and, taking a stick, pass it through and twist it round, until the lashings are extremely tight, then let it be secured. Now let the ox go, and get quickly out of his way, in case he should be savage. When the ox gets up, he is sulky and ferocious by turns; and kicks, jumps, and bellows, but at last joins his companions.

If he has been well packed, the skins will keep in place and not fall off; but whether they do or not, he must be re-caught and re-packed every day. A young ox is generally more difficult to break-in than an old one: I do not know why. An ox requires no pack-saddle; his back is too round to carry one with advantage. It is therefore usual to lay spare skins, etc., upon him, and over these the bags that have to be packed. A great length of thong is required to lash them. It is convenient to make a pair of very large saddle-bags out of skin or canvas, which require simply to be placed on the ox's back and there girthed.

To train an Ox to carry a Rider.--It takes a very long time to train an ox to carry a riding-saddle well and steadily: indeed, very few oxen can be taught to go wherever they may be guided by the rider; they are of so gregarious a nature, that, for the most part, they will not move a step without companions. Hence, those oxen only are thought worth breaking-in which are observed to take the part of leaders of the drove when pasturing, and which are therefore supposed to have some independence of disposition. The first time of mounting an ox to break him in, is a work of almost certain mischance: for the long horns of the ox will often reach the rider, however far back he may sit, and the animal kicks and bucks in a way that severely tries the best of seats. All riding-oxen's horns should have the tips sawn off. After being mounted a very few times, the ox goes pretty steadily; but it is long before he learns to carry a rider with ease to himself. I should like to hear if Rarey's plan of tying up the foreleg would influence them. Their character is so wholly unlike that of a horse, that I doubt if it would.

In riding, it must be recollected that the temper of an ox is far less quick, though his sensations may be as acute as those of a horse: thus, he does not start forwards on receiving a cut with the whip, even though he shrink with the pain; but he thinks about it, shakes his head, waits a while, and then breaks gradually into a faster pace. An ox will trot well enough with a light weight; and, though riding myself upwards of 13 stone, I once took an ox 60 miles in a day and a half: this is, perhaps as much as an ox could, in fairness, be made to do. A ride-ox can be tied up by his nose-bridle; but, if wild or frightened, he will assuredly struggle till the nose-stick be torn out of his nose, and he becomes free. It is, therefore, better to tie the bridle to a tuft of grass, or a slender twig, rather than to a tree or to the saddle-bags. Mounting an ox is usually a troublesome business, on account of his horns. To make ride-oxen quiet and tame, scratch their backs and tails--they dearly love it--and hold salt in your hands for them to lick. They soon learn their names, and come to be caressed when called.

Cows.--Most breeds of cows, out of Europe, cease to give milk after their calf dies; and the only way of making them continue their yield, is to spread out the calf's hide for them to lick, some time before milking them; it retains its effect for a week or more. Messrs. Huc and Gabet give the following graphic account of this contrivance, as applied to restive cows:--"These long-tailed cows are so restive and difficult to milk, that, to keep them at all quiet, the herdsman has to give them a calf to lick meanwhile. But for this device, not a single drop of milk could be obtained from them. One day a Lama herdsman, who lived in the same house with ourselves, came, with a long dismal face, to announce that his cow had calved during the night, and that unfortunately the calf was dying. It died in the course of the day. The Lama forthwith skinned the poor beast, and stuffed it with hay. This proceeding surprised us at first, for the Lama had by no means the air of a man likely to give himself the luxury of a cabinet of natural history. When the operation was completed, we observed that the hay-calf had neither feet nor head; whereupon it occurred to us that, after all, it was perhaps a pillow that the Lama contemplated. We were in error; but the error was not dissipated till the next morning, when our herdsman went to milk his cow. Seeing him issue forth--the pail in one hand, the hay-calf under the other arm--the fancy occurred to us to follow him. His first proceeding was to put the hay-calf down before the cow. He then turned to milk the cow herself. The mamma at first opened enormous eyes at her beloved infant; by degrees she stooped her head towards it, then smelt at it, sneezed three or four times, and at last proceeded to lick it with the most delightful tenderness. This spectacle grated against our sensibilities: it seemed to us that he who first invented this parody upon one of the most touching incidents in nature must have been a man without a heart. A somewhat burlesque circumstance occurred one day, to modify the indignation with which this treachery inspired us. By dint of caressing and licking her little calf, the tender parent one fine morning unripped it: the hay issued from within; and the cow, manifesting not the slightest surprise nor agitation, proceeded tranquilly to devour the unexpected provender."

The Highlanders used this contrivance, and called it a "Tulchan": hence King James's bishops were nicknamed "Tulchan bishops," to imply that they were officials of straw, merely set up as a means of milking the Scotch people of their money, in the form of church-dues.

Camels.--Camels are only fit for a few countries, and require practised attendants; thorns and rocks lame them, hills sadly impede them, and a wet slippery soil entirely stops them.

Elephants.--They are expensive and delicate, but excellent beasts of burden, in rainy tropical countries. The traveller should make friends with the one he regularly rides, by giving it a piece of sugar-cane or banana before mounting. A sore back is a certain obstacle to a continuance of travel; there is no remedy for it but rest. The average burden, furniture included, but excluding the driver, is 500 lbs., and the full average day's journey 15 miles.

Dogs.--Dogs will draw a "travail" (which see) of 60 lbs. for 15 miles a day, over hard, level country, for days together; frequently they will accomplish much more than that. For Arctic travel, they are used in journeys after they are three years old; each dog requires eight or ten herrings per day, or an equivalent to them. A sledge of 12 dogs carries 900 lbs.; it travels on smooth ice seven or eight miles an hour; and in 36 days, 22 sledges and 240 dogs travelled 800 miles--1210 versts. (Admiral Wrangel.) Dogs are used by the Patagonian fishermen to drive fish into their nets, and to prevent them from breaking through the nets when they are inside them. (See next paragraph for "Sheep-dogs.")

Goats and Sheep.--Goats are much more troublesome to drive than sheep, neither are they such enduring walkers, nor do they give as much meat; but their skins are of such great use to furnish strong leather, that it is seldom convenient to make up a caravan without them. She-goats give some milk, even when travelling fast, and in dry countries; but a ewe-sheep is not worth milking under those circumstances, as her yield is a mere nothing. Goats are very mischievous--they make their way out of all enclosures, and trespass everywhere. They butt at whatever is bright or new, or strange to them; and would drive an observer, who employed astronomical instruments on stands, to distraction. In an open country, where there are no bushes for a kraal, nets must be taken, and stakes cut, to make enclosures for the sheep. If they stray at all, the least thing scares them, and they will wander very far, and scatter. Goats are far more social and intelligent. If one, two, or three sheep only be driven, long thongs must be tied to their legs, and allowed to trail along the ground, by which they may be re-caught if they gallop off. When the Messrs. Schlagintweit were encamped at vast heights, among the snows of the Himalaya, they always found it practicable to drive sheep to their stations. When sheep, etc., are long hurdled at night, near the same encampment, the nuisance of flies and ticks becomes intolerable. Sheep-dogs seem to prove of less use to travellers than might have been expected; perhaps the other dogs corrupt them.

Management of Cattle generally.--To make an animal rise when he throws himself on the ground with his pack, and will not get up, it is not of much use to flog him; twisting or biting his tail is the usual way, or making a blaze with grass and a few sticks under his nostrils. The stubborness of a half-broken ox is sometimes beyond conception.

Cattle Bells, in countries where they can be used without danger, should always be taken; it adds greatly to the cheerfulness and gregariousness of the animals--mules positively require them. Hard wood is sonorous enough for bells.

Brands and Cattle-marks.--In buying oxen out of the herds of pastoral people, it is very difficult to remember each animal so as to recognise it again if it strays back to its former home; it requires quite a peculiar talent to do so. Therefore it is advisable that the traveller's cattle should be marked or branded. A trader in Namaqua Land, took red paint, and tied a brush on to a long stick; with this he made a daub on the hind quarters of the freshly-bought and half-wild cattle, as they pushed through the door of his kraal. It naturally excites great ridicule among natives, to paint an ox that he may be known again; but, for all that, I think the trader's plan well worth adopting. The same might be done to sheep, as a slit ear is not half conspicuous enough. A good way of marking a sheep's ear is to cut a wad out of the middle of it, with a gun-punch; but it will sometimes tear this hole into a slit, by scratching with its foot.

Chaff, to cut.--Tie a sickle against a tree, with its blade projecting; then, standing in front of the blade, hold a handful of reeds across it with both hands, one hand on either side of the blade; pull it towards you, and the reeds will be cut through; drop the cut end, seize the bundle afresh, and repeat the process. In this way, after a little practice, chaff is cut with great ease and quickness. A broken sickle does as well as a whole one, and a knife may be used, but the curve of its edge is ill adapted for the work.

Cattle will eat many sorts of herbage, as reeds and gorse, if cut small; but will not touch them, if uncut.

Occasional Food for Cattle.--They will also eat seaweed and leaves especially birch and poplar leaves, and even thrive upon them.

Pulling Cattle out of Holes.--The bight of a cord, or of some substitute for one, may be thrown over a horse's head, and he can be dragged out by a team of cattle with but very little danger to his neck. A crupper under his tail, or a thong as a breeching may be used. In Canada and the United States, a noose of rope is often run round the horse's neck, and hauled tight--thus temporarily choking the animal and making him still; he is then pulled as quickly as possible out of the hole, and no time is lost in slackening the rope.

HARNESS.

Saddles for riding.--Good saddles for riding, and, I may add, especially for packing, are of nearly as great importance as the goodness of the animal who carries them. English saddlers never, I believe, can be induced to stuff a saddle sufficiently; because they have no opportunity of seeing the miserable, scraggy condition of a travelled horse's back, to which it is destined to fit. But an English saddle, restuffed at a bush frontier town, is excellent.

Three rings, and nine of what saddlers call "D's," should be fixed to the saddle, not simply into the leather-work, but firmly riveted or secured into the tree itself. This must be especially insisted on, or frequent disasters will occur. The three rings are to be fixed to the pommel--one on the top, and one on each side of it; the nine "D's" are placed as follows:--three along the back of the saddle, two more on each side of the seat, and two in front, for the breastplate.

Fittings.--To these may be tied a light valise in front; a gun-holster on the right of the pommel; and a small bag--containing odds and ends, gunpowder, spare bullets, a few presents, etc.--on its left. On the right of the seat, a sabre-tasch, or thin leather portfolio-shaped pocket, for paper and writing materials; on the left, the water-canteen and hobbles; behind, the crupper and small saddle-bags. A breastplate is not worth having, except in a very hilly country. This description of a saddle, of course, applies to that of the travelling-horse. For the saddle of the shooting-horse the arrangement is different; only the gun-holster, and perhaps the water-canteen can then be taken. An ox carries a saddle precisely like a horse. I rode mine nearly 1600 miles, in South Africa, with a common hunting-saddle and its ordinary girths.

In default of riding-saddles, a pack-saddle must be cushioned to form a comfortable seat (see "Pack-saddles").

Saddle-bags are so troublesome to open, and require so many straps, that I believe it is best to use a bag of macintosh or canvas, rolled up and tied behind the saddle, where it should rest on a pad. The pad is made of two cushions, each 9 inches long and 4 broad, sewn on a piece of leather, lying parallel to one another, and 4 inches apart. The space between the cushions corresponds to the backbone of the horse. To keep the whole in shape, it is usual to stitch four or five laths of wood lengthways to the upper surface of the pad; upon these laths the bag will rest. If there be occasion to carry a bag on horseback for a short distance, pass one of the stirrup-leathers through its string; then throw the bag over to the other side of the saddle: it will lie behind the rider's leg, and be out of his way and he will sit upon part of its string.

Australians, as is well known, insist on the merits of a "swag," or a long package formed by rolling all their possessions into their blanket. They carry it over the saddle-bows.

Sore backs.--Sore backs are the plague of beasts of burden; for, if the skin be once broken, it will never heal thoroughly again during the whole journey. Every precaution should, therefore, be taken at first starting: the saddles should be well-stuffed; the saddle-cloths ample, and without hem or edging (blankets are as good as any); the journeys should be short; the packs light and carefully balanced; rests of a day or two should frequently be given, and salt-water should be rubbed on the back. Travelling in the very early morning is found to be bad for animals' backs; but travelling late at night is not so. An Australian correspondent remarks, that a party of travellers or explorers in Australia, on leaving their camp, invariably saddle their horses with ample saddle-cloths below the saddle, and assist each other by turns, to fold the cloths in various ways. For instance, if the ridge of the back, or wither, should be found galled, the cloth would be folded up, so that the saddle should rest entirely on the two folded pads, as in the figure.--Other modes of folding will suggest themselves, according to the way in which the back may be rubbed.

The first appearance of a sore back is a small hardish swelling or warble: this must at once be attended to, either by folding the saddle-cloth in some appropriate way, or by picking out the saddle-stuffing, so as to ease all pressure from off it; otherwise, it will get larger and larger, and a single day will convert what might have been easily cured, into a serious and irremediable gall. Girth-galls, on their first appearance, may be relieved if not cured, by sewing two rolls of soft woollen material on to the girth. The hair from the animal's mane or tail has been used on an emergency to stuff a saddle.

Pack-Saddles.--To make when Travelling.--Cut four bent pieces of touch wood, and two small planks; season them as well as you can (see "Wood, to season"), and join them together, as in figs. 1 and 2, using raw hide in addition to nails or pegs. Stuffed cushions must be secured inside the planks by tying or otherwise. With a saw and a mortise-chisel, a saddle of the pattern shown in fig. 3 would be easy to make. It is stronger than the one just described, and the notched cross-bar is very convenient for the pack-ropes.

Pack-Saddles made by Saddlers.--There has been, perhaps, no journey in which pack-horses worked so effectively as during the exploration of North Australia under Mr. Gregory. I am much indebted to Mr. Baines, the artist of the expedition, who has subsequently travelled extensively, for the following very interesting account:--

"The pack-saddles were made after a model by Mr. Gregory, and are the best I have yet seen. Two boards of light wood are connected by bows of iron, 1 1/2 inch wide and 1/4 inch thick, with hooks inserted in either side, for the pack-bags to hook on to. The straps for the breastings, breechings, and girths, were screwed to the boards; the crupper passed through a ring on the after bow; and a light pad, which could easily be taken out to be re-stuffed, was secured by small thongs, passed through holes in the ends of the boards. We had two girths, which crossed each other under the horse. (In unloading, the neck-strap is unbuckled on the near side, also the breasting and girths; and the whole is drawn off behind.)

"The pack-bags were made of one width of canvas, turned up so as to have no seam in the bottom. Pear-shaped pieces were sewn in to form the ends, and rope was stitched along the seams, having eyes above, by which the bag was hung upon the hooks (fig. 2). The flour-bags were made of canvas, of the usual width, with a round bottom stitched into them. The mouth was sewn up when full, and an oiled bag of the same size drawn over it.

"When all our horses were saddled up, the word 'on packs' was given. Dr. Mueller and I used to work together, and had our packs laid out in pairs; so that when each horse was led between his bags, we hooked them on at the same moment. When we halted, we laid our bags on a couple of poles, to keep them from the ground, as in the drawing.

"The bags sometimes came off when we were travelling; but it was generally easy to catch the horse and reload him. When a horse rolled over, or fell in a river, it was rather an advantage than otherwise to get clear of them. Our waterproof bags were of leather, lined with waterproof cloth, just large enough to fill one of the canvas pack-bags. They had a brass neck with a worm inside, in which we screwed a plug of soft wood. (There was rarely, if ever, occasion to use them.) Each pair of bags was carefully balanced, one against the other, that the horses might not be unequally loaded. The average weight of stores carried in each bag was 75 lbs., making a load (at starting) or 150 lbs., exclusive of bags, packages, or saddlery. Bells were attached to the necks of the horses most apt to stray; but the clappers were tied up with a piece of thong, to keep them quiet on the march; and were loosened at night, so that the sound might guide us in searching for them next morning.

"We watched two hours each during night; the morning watch boiled the water, and woke the rest at four. We made our breakfast of tea or coffee, damper, and pork, which we ate raw, and went out for the horses; which were generally saddled up, and on the move, before sunrise. We travelled till one or two, when we led the horses to water, looked to any sores that might be caused by the pressure of their saddles, dressed them and altered the stuffing of the saddle to give them relief, and, after dinner, which was rather a brief ceremony, had the rest of the day for scientific or artistic pursuits,--that is, if something else did not require immediate attention. We could never trust to our guns for provision, as game was very scarce, and we had no opportunity of seeking it."

Sir Samuel Baker gave considerable attention to the subject of pack-saddles. The following is his account of the method he adopted in Africa:--"I had arranged their (the donkeys') packs so well, that they carried their loads with the greatest comfort. Each animal had an immense pad, well stuffed with goats' hair; this rested from the shoulder to the hip bones; upon this rested a simple form of saddle made of two forks of boughs inverted, and fastened together with rails; there were no nails in these saddles, all the fastenings being secured with thongs of raw hide. the great pad projecting before and behind, and also below the side of the saddle, prevented the loads from chafing the animal. Every donkey carried two large bags made from the hides of antelopes that I had formerly shot on the frontier of Abyssinia, and these were arranged with toggles on the one to fit into loops on the other, so that the loading and unloading was exceedingly simple. The success of an expedition depends mainly upon the perfection of the details, and, where animals are employed for transport, the first consideration should be bestowed upon saddle-packs. The facility of loading is all-important, and I now had an exemplification of its effect upon both animals and men; the latter began to abuse the camels and to curse the father of this, and the mother of that, because they had the trouble of unloading them for the descent into the river's bed, while the donkeys were blessed with the endearing name of 'my brother,' and alternately whacked with the stick."

The art of packing.--The art of good packing is to balance the packs accurately, and to lash tightly to the saddle, so that they will never slip. The entire load is then secured to the animal's back, by moderate girthing. It is going on a false principle, to wind one long cord round the horse, saddle, and packs; making, as it were, a great faggot of them.

To tighten the lashings of a pack, thrust a stick through them, twist it forcibly round and round, till the lashings are screwed tight enough, and then secure the stick.

Half-filled sacks require to have laths of wood, or a handful of twigs, put between them and the packing-cord, to equalise its pressure; otherwise, they are strangled out of shape and never lie firmly against the saddle.

Other Harness.--Cruppers.--A crupper rope should be passed through a leather tube, fitting it loosely. Cruppers for pack-saddles, adapted to very mountainous countries, like those used in Norway, can readily be made by travellers. Instead of employing a ring to enclose the tail of the beast (which is sure to fret its sides), he should pass a curved bar of wood, a foot long, underneath the tail, and tie a cord to the pack-saddle, from either end of the bar.

Girths.--A roll of spare webbing should be taken to patch up torn girths; but a good substitute for a girth is made by cutting a band of tanned, or even of dressed, leather, to within four inches of its end, into seven or nine bands, and plaiting these together. But it takes a beginner just ten times as long to plait a girth as to weave it, and, therefore, for making more than one girth, it is well worth while to set up a rude loom. Do this as though you were making a mat. (See "Mat.") Girths need not be buckled; they may be laced.

Stirrups must be very roomy, enough to admit clumsily-shaped shoes, such as are made in the bush; they must be broad under the sole of the foot, and also at the place which rubs against the little toe. Unless they are heavy, it is not easy to find them with the foot; travellers in South Africa cut them out from any thick raw hide--that of giraffe, rhinoceros, or sea-cow does admirably. A wooden stirrup may be cut or burnt out of a block. It should have lead melted into it to give it sufficient weight. A stick and a thong, as shown in the figure, is a poor makeshift. Willow, or any other lithe wood, is easily bent into the required shape, especially if its outer edge be nicked with a knife; otherwise it would be a mere loop of wood, such as it represented in the next figure but two, in the paragraph on Rings.

Bridles and Bits.--Leave behind all English notions of snaffles and double reins, and ride with nothing but an easy curb. The horse must also carry a headstall and a halter; I like one with plenty of tassels, to keep off the flies. A temporary substitute for a curb is made by noosing a string, and putting the noose round the horse's lower jaw. If the string be long enough, it can be doubled back again, and tied to the other side of the noose, so as to make a complete bridle. The groom's fashion of giving the halter a hitch, and putting it round the jaw, is well known.

Buckles.--A contrivance like this will often be found useful to replace a buckle and strap; by twisting the lower thong more tightly, its length can be shortened as much as may be required. If the tongue of a buckle breaks, a nail or a peg, pushed through the buckle-hole, as in the figure below will replace it.

To Padlock a Bag.--A padlock, passed through the next buckle-hole, as is also shown in the same figure, prevents pilferers from unbuckling and opening the package. It is well to learn some artful sailor's-knot for tying up bags, with which other people cannot meddle without your finding it out.

Rings.--In packing-gear and other harness, use is frequently made of rings. Iron ones may be replaced by a loop of tough wood, such as the peasants of the Campagna commonly employ: a piece of the thickness of a small walking-stick, and eight inches long, is bent (see "Wood, to bend"); its arms are notched when they cross, and are firmly nailed or lashed.

Tethers, Hobbles, and Knee-halters.--Cattle may be secured at night by being tethered, hobbled, knee-haltered, or driven into an enclosure made of bushes. The nature of the country, and what dangers are apprehended, determine which plan is most advisable. A knee-haltered horse has a good change of escape if he scents a wild beast that is creeping up to him; for he can gallop, though with labour, to a short distance. A hobbled horse has no chance at all; though, indeed, they have been known to fight desperately with their teeth and feet, and learn to be cunning and watchful. If the hobbles are of iron, and made like handcuffs, it is hardly possible for robbers--at all events for savages--to unlock or cut them. A horse that is hobbled or knee-haltered, can graze during the night; but if tied up or pounded, his grass must be cut for him. A horse may be successfully hobbled with a stirrup-leather, by putting its middle round one fetlock, then twisting it half-a-dozen times, and, lastly, buckling it round the other fetlock. The hobble used by Mr. Gregory takes into five separate pieces, viz., two fetlock straps, a1, a2; a chain, b, having a swivel point, c, in the middle; and two double pot-hooks, d1, d2, which pass through eyes in the fetlock straps, and also through the end links in the chain. The two ends of both, d1 and d2, are thickened and pierced, so as to admit of tying a thong across their mouths, as shown on one side of d2. The fetlock strap is made of a strip of thick leather, folded lengthways down its middle, and having its edges sewn together. The sewn edge should always be the uppermost, when on the horse's legs.

Oxen are often picketed to their yokes; I have already mentioned that it is hazardous to secure ride and pack oxen by their nose reams, as they will tear themselves loose without heeding the pain, if really frightened. Horses are often tied to the wheels, etc., of the wagon. When you wish to picket horses in the middle of a sandy plain, dig a hole two or three feet deep, and tying your rope to a faggot of sticks or brush-wood, or even to a bag filled with sand, bury this in it. (See "Dateram.")

Swivel.--The woodcut shows how a makeshift swivel can be fitted to a tether rope. Without one, the rope will be twisted almost up to a knot by the horse walking round and round his picket peg; with one, the rope will turn freely in the hole, through which its large knotted head prevents it from being drawn.

The figure below is a better sort of swivel. It must be made of hard tough wood, like oak: it is six inches in length. It has, I presume, some advantages over those of iron, because in countries where iron abounds, as in Piedmont, it holds its ground against them. The ropes have been drawn thinner than their just proportion, for the sake of distinctness.

I give a drawing of yet another description of swivel; it is a trifle more complicated than the first, but I am assured that it acts so much better as to be greatly preferable.

Horse-collar.--This, in its simplest form, consists of two stout bars that are a little bent or shaped with a knife; they go one on either side of the animal's neck, and are tied together both above and below it. To these bars, which are very thickly padded, the traces are fastened.

Traces and Trektows can be made of raw hide, cut into a long thong, then bent into three parts, and twisted and laid together, as is done in rope-making; the whole is then stretched tight between two trees to dry. An ox-hide will make a trektow for four pairs of oxen. Poles of wood are very generally used as traces; a thong, or a few links of chain, being fastened at either end, by which to attach them.

Greasing Harness.--In dry climates take frequent opportunities of greasing every part of the harness. (See "Hides; Leather, to grease.")

CARRIAGES.

Wagons.--A traveller's wagon should be of the simplest possible construction, and not too heavy. The Cape wagons, or, at all events, those of a few years back, undoubtedly shared the ponderousness of all Dutch workmanship. Weight is required only when crashing through a bushy country, where a wagon must break down all before it: in every other case it is objectionable. It is a saving of labour to have one large wagon, rather than two small ones, because a driver and a leader are thereby spared. But if a very light wagon has to be taken, I should greatly prefer its being made on the Swiss and German fashion, with a shifting perch as in the figure

These are the simplest of affairs, and will split up into two carts--the pole and the fore-wheels forming one, and the perch and the hind-wheels another: now, should a great loss occur among the traveller's cattle, or should he break a wheel, or even strain an axle-tree, in a timberless country, it may be very convenient to him to abandon part of his stores, and to build up a cart for carrying on the remainder. Lady Vavasour describes one of these wagons in the following graphic manner:--"The perch is moveable, and they can make it any length they please; it is of so simple a construction that every farmer can repair his own, and make anything of it. If he has a perch, a pole, and four wheels, that is enough; with a little ingenuity, he makes it carry stones, hay, earth, or anything he wants, by putting a plank at each side. When he wants a carriage for pleasure, he fits it up for that purpose; his moveable perch allows him to make it anything. I counted seventeen grown persons sitting side by side, looking most happy, in one of them, drawn only by a pair of small horses, and in this hilly country."

Drays.--Two-wheeled drays, and not wagons, are used very generally in Australia. A long bar is crossed by a short one near one of its ends,--this latter forms the axletree; the body of the dray is built where the two cross; and the cattle are yoked or harnessed to the long end of the bar, which acts as a pole.

Tarring Wheels.--Tar is absolutely essential in a hot country, to mix with the grease that is used for the wagon-wheels. Grease, alone, melts and runs away like water: the object of the tar is to give consistency to the grease; a very small proportion of tar suffices, but without any at all, a wagon is soon brought to a standstill. It is, therefore, most essential to explorers to have a sufficient quantity in reserve. Tar is also of very great use in hot dry countries for daubing over the wheels, and the woodwork generally, of wagons. During extreme heat, when the wood is ready to crack, all the paint should be scraped off it, and the tar applied plentifully. It will soak in deeply, and preserve the wood in excellent condition, both during the drought and the ensuing wet season. (See "Tar, to make.") It is not necessary to take off the wheels in order to grease the axles. It is sufficient to bore an auger-hole right through the substance of the nave, between the feet of two of the spokes, and to keep a plug in the hole. Then, when you want to tar a wheel, turn it till the hole is uppermost, take the plug out, and pour in the tar.

Breaks and Drags.--Breaks.--Every cart and wagon in Switzerland, and, indeed, in most parts of the Continent, has a break attached to it: the simplest kind of break is shown in fig. 2, which represents a cart tilted upwards. Fig 1 shows the break itself; fig. 2 explains how it is fitted on to the cart. [Fig 1.] It will easily be understood how, by tightening the free end of the cord, the break is pressed against the wheels. The bent piece of iron shown in fig. 2, by which the bar of the break is kept in its place, may be replaced by a piece of wood, or even by a thong of leather. Every explorer's wagon should be furnished with a break.

A simple break, used in Italy, in some parts of England and probably elsewhere, is shown in fig. 3. A rail is lashed to the body of the cart, both before and behind the wheel, and is made to press against the wheel. Either both lashings can be tightened at the same time, as at A, A; or only one of them, as at B. When the lashings are loose, the rail rests partly on the nave of the wheel and does not sensibly interfere with its movement.

Other Means of Checking a Wagon on a Hill-side.--In going down a steep hill a middling-sized tree may be felled, and its root tied to the hind axletree, while its branchy top sweeps along the ground, as is seen in the lowermost wagon in the sketch. [Sketch of horses and wagons on hill] In the south-west of France the leaders of the team are unharnessed and taken to the back of the wagon, to which the collar of the front horse is made fast; in this way they can aid the horses in the shafts. The same plan may be seen practised hourly in the Strand in London, whence heavy wagons are taken down a very steep and narrow lane to the Adelphi.

In descending short steep pitches, unharness the cattle, and "fasten a rope round the axle of the wagon; then passing the other end round a tree or rock as a check, you may let her slide, which she will do without any further trouble on your part." (F. Marryat.)

In some places the hind wheels are taken off, and sledge runners are fitted to the hind axletree. This is an excellent plan; it has the further advantage that the wagon settles down into a more horizontal position than before. I have seen timber carried on a wagon down a steep hill by separating the front wheels from the hind ones, lashing a trail (see "Travail" below) or two short poles to the fore axletree, and resting one end of the timber on the hind axletree, and the other end on the trail.

Shoe the wheel on the side furthest from the precipice.

If you have to leave a cart or wagon untended for a while, lock the wheel.

Sledges.--When carrying wood or stones, and doing other heavy work, a traveller should spare his wagon and use a sledge. This is made by cutting down a forked tree, lopping off its branches, and shaping it a little with an axe. If necessary, a few bars may be fixed across the fork so as to make a stage. Great distances may be traversed by one of these rude affairs, if the country is not very stony. Should it capsize, no great harm is done; and if it breaks down, or is found to have been badly made, an hour's labour will suffice to construct another. Sledges are very useful where there is an abundance of horse or ox power, but no wagon or packing-gear.

North American Travail.--In a North American Indian horse "travail," the crossing of the poles (they are the poles of the wigwams) usually rests on a rough pack-saddle or pad, which a breast-strap keeps from slipping backwards. In a dog travail the cross of the poles rests on the back of the neck, and is kept in place by a breast or rather a neck strap; the poles are wrapped with pieces of buffalo robe where they press against the dog. Captain Blakiston--a very accurate authority--considers that a horse will travel 30 miles in the day, dragging on the travail a weight of about 200 lbs., including a child, whose mother sits on the horse's back; and that a dog, the size of an average retriever, will draw about 80 lbs. for the same distance. (N.B. The North American plains are perfectly level.)

Palanquins, carried like sedan-chairs, between two animals--one going before the other in shafts--are in use in various countries; but I am not aware that explorers have ever properly tried them. Their advantage would lie in combining the convenience of a cart with much of the independence of pack-horses. For whatever is lashed on a pack-saddle must be securely tied up; it is therefore severely compressed, and cannot be taken out en route. But with a cart or a palanquin there is no such inconvenience: things may be quickly thrown into them or taken out; pockets and drawers may be fitted up; and the palanquin would afford some shelter in rain. I should think it would be well worth while to try one of these contrivances. It might be made en route; first accustoming the animals, when carrying their packs, to walk between long shafts, then, after some days, taking the load off their saddles, and lashing them on to the shafts. If all went well, a regular palanquin might be constructed with legs, to be let down when the animals are off-packed, and on which it might stand until ready to be again carried onwards. Half-a-dozen palanquins in file would make a pretty, and, I should think, a manageable and effective caravan. Asses ought to be able to carry them well; a couple of asses would probably carry a greater weight than a single pack-horse, and would give no greater trouble; if so, their hardiness would be invaluable.

SWIMMING.

General Remarks.--Rate of Swimming. People swim much more slowly than is commonly supposed. In races between first-rate swimmers, for distances of 300 yards and upwards, the average pace of two miles an hour is barely, if at all, exceeded.

Learning to Swim.--A good way of teaching a person to swim, is a modification of that adopted at Eton. The teacher may sit in a punt or on a rock, with a stout stick of 6 or 10 feet in length, at the end of which is a cord of 4 feet or so, with loops. The learner puts himself into the loops; and the teacher plays him, as a fisherman would play a fish, in water that is well out of his depth: he gives him just enough support to keep him from drowning. After six or a dozen lessons, many boys require no support at all, but swim about with the rope dangling slack about them. When a boy does this, he can be left to shift for himself. The art of swimming far is acquired, like the art of running far, by a determination to go on, without resting a moment, until utterly unable to make a stroke further, and then to stop altogether. Each succeeding day, the distance travelled is marvellously increased, until the natural limit of the man's powers is attained. The chilliness consequent on staying long in water is retarded by rubbing all over the body, before entering it, about twice as much oil or bear's-grease as a person uses for his hair.

To support those who cannot Swim.--If a person cannot swim a stroke, he should be buoyed up with floats under his arms, and lashed quite securely, to his own satisfaction; then he can be towed across the river with a string. If he lose courage halfway, it cannot be helped: it will do him no harm, and his swimming friend is in no danger of being grappled with and drowned. For very short distances, a usual way is for the man who cannot swim to hold his friend by the hips. A very little floating power is enough to buoy a man's head, above still water. (See "African Swimming Ferry," below.)

Landing through Breakers.--In landing through a heavy surf, wait for a large wave, and come in on the crest of it; then make every possible exertion to scramble up to some firm holding-place, whence its indraught, when it returns, can be resisted. If drawn back, you will be heavily battered, perhaps maimed, certainly far more exhausted than before, and not a whit nearer to safety. Avoid receiving a breaker in the attitude of scrambling away from it on hands and knees: from such a position, the wave projects a man headforemost with fearful force, and rolls him over and over in its surge. He ought to turn on his back the instant before the breaker is upon him; and then all will go well, and he will be helped on, and not half-killed by it. Men on shore can rescue a man who is being washed to and fro in the surf, by holding together, very firmly, hand-in-hand, and forming a line down to the sea: the foremost man clutches the swimmer as soon as he is washed up to him, and holds him firmly while the wave is retiring. The force of the indraught is enormous, and none but strong men can withstand it.

Floats.--If a traveller can swim pretty well, it is a good plan to make a float when he wishes to cross a river, and to lay his breast upon it, while his clothes and valuables are enclosed in a huge turban on his head. In this way, he may cross the broadest streams and float great distances down a river. He may tie paddles to his hands. His float may consist of a faggot of rushes, a log of wood, or any one of his empty water-vessels, whether barrels or bags; for whatever will keep water in, will also keep it out. The small quantity of air, which might escape through the sides of a bag, should be restored by blowing afresh into it, during the voyage. A few yards of intestine blown out and tied here and there, so as to form so many watertight compartments, makes a capital swimming belt: it may be wound in a figure of 8 round the neck and under the armpits. When employing empty bottles, they should be well corked and made fast under the armpits, or be stuffed within the shirt or jersey, and a belt tied round the waist below them, to keep them in place.

African Swimming Ferry.--The people of Yariba have a singular mode of transporting passengers across rivers and streams, when the violence and rapidity of their currents prevent them from using canoes with safety. The passenger grasps the float (see fig.), on the top of which his luggage is lashed; and a perfect equilibrium is preserved, by the ferry-man placing himself opposite the passenger, and laying hold of both his arms. They being thus face to face, the owner of the float propels it by striking with his legs. The natives use as their float two of their largest calabashes, cutting off their small ends, and joining the openings face to face, so as to form a large, hollow, watertight vessel.

Makeshift Life-belt.--A moderately effective life-belt may be made of holland, ticking, canvas, or similar materials, in the following manner, and might be used with advantage by the crew of a vessel aground some way from the mainland, who are about to swim for their lives:--Cut out two complete rings, of 16 inches outer diameter and 8 inches inner diameter; sew these together along both edges, with as fine a needle as possible and with double thread: add strong shoulder-straps, so that it shall not, by any possibility, slip down over the hips; and, lastly, sew into it a long narrow tube, made out of a strip, a foot long and two inches wide, of the same material as the belt. At the mouth of this, a bit of wood, an inch long, with a hole bored down its middle, should be inserted as a mouthpiece. Through this tube the belt can be re-inflated by the swimmer while in the water, as often as may be necessary; and, by simply twisting the tube and tucking its end in the belt, its vent can always be closed. After a canvas belt is thoroughly drenched, it will hold the air very fairly: the seams are its weakest parts. For supporting a swimmer in calm water, a collar is as good as a belt.

Transport on Water.--Parcels.--The swimmer's valuables may as well be put inside the empty vessel that acts as his float, as in the turban on his head (see "Floats"). A goat-skin is often filled half full of the things he wants to carry, and is then blown out and its mouth secured. A very good life-belt may be bought, which admits of this arrangement: it has a large opening at one end, which is closed by a brass door that shuts like the top of an inkstand, and is then quite air-tight.

A small parcel, if tightly wrapped up in many folds, will keep dry for a long time, though partly immersed in water: the outside of it may be greased, oiled, or waxed, for additional security. If deeply immersed, the water is sure to get in.

Swimming with Horses.--In crossing a deep river, with a horse or other large animal, drive him in: or even lead him along a steep bank, and push him sideways, suddenly into the water: having fairly started him, jump in yourself, seize his tail, and let him tow you across. If he turns his head with the intention of changing his course, splash water in his face with your right or left hand, as the case may be, holding the tail with one hand and splashing with the other; and you will, in this way, direct him just as you like. This is by far the best way of swimming a horse: all others are objectionable and even dangerous with animals new to the work,--such as to swim alongside the horse, with one hand on his shoulder; or, worst of all, to retain your seat on his back. If this last method be persisted in, at least let the rider take his feet out of the stirrups, before entering the water.

To float a Wagon across a River.--It must be well ballasted, or it will assuredly capsize: the heavy contents should be stowed at the bottom; the planking lashed to the axletrees, or it will float away from them; great bundles of reeds and the empty water-vessels should be made fast high above all, and then the wagon will cross without danger. When it is fairly under weigh, the oxen will swim it across, pulling in their yokes.

Water Spectacles.--When a man opens his eyes under water, he can see nothing distinctly; but everything is as much out of focus, as if he looked, in air, through a pair of powerful spectacles that were utterly unsuited to him. He cannot distinguish the letters of the largest print in a newspaper advertisement; he cannot see the spaces between the outstretched fingers, at arm's length, in clear water; nor at a few inches' distance in water that is somewhat opaque. I read a short paper on this subject, at the British Association in 1865, in which I showed the precise cause of this imperfection of vision and how it might be remedied. If the front of our eyeballs had been flat, we should have had the power of seeing under water as clearly as in air; but instead of being flat, they are very convex, consequently our eye stamps a concave lens of high power into the water, and it is the seeing through this concave eyeglass which our eyeball makes for itself, that causes the indistinctness of our vision. Knowing the curvature of the eyeball, it is easy to calculate (as I did in the memoir mentioned above) the curvature of a convex lens of flint-glass that should, when plunged into water, produce effects of an exactly equal and contrary value, exactly neutralizing the effects of the concave eyeglass of water, if it were held immediately in front of the pupil of the eye. I have made several experiments with a view to obtaining serviceable spectacles, for seeing under water. The result is as follows:--experience has shown the distance from the eyeball at which spectacle-glasses can be most conveniently placed; now at that distance, the joint effect of the concave water-lens and the convex glass spectacle-lens, is to produce an opera-glass of exceedingly low magnifying power, that requires a small adjustment for accurate definition at different distances.

If the spectacle-lens be of flint-glass and doubly convex, each of its faces should have a curvature of not greater than 6 1/2 tenths of an inch, nor more than 8 1/2 tenths of an inch in radius: within these limits, it is practicable to obtain perfectly distinct vision under water by pressing the spectacles forwards or backwards to a moderate degree. Lenses of these high magnifying powers are sometimes sold by spectacle-makers, for persons who have undergone an operation for cataract. I have tried, but hitherto without much success, to arrange the fittings by which the lenses are secured so that by a movement of the jaw or by an elevation of the eyebrows, I could give the necessary adjustment of the glasses, leaving my hands free for the purpose of swimming. (See also, under "Fishing;' 'To see Things deep under Water.')

RAFTS AND BOATS.

Rafts.--Rafts of Wood.--Rafts are made of logs of wood, held together by pairs of cross-bars, one of each pair lying above the raft and the other below; then, the whole may be made quite firm by a little judicious notching wherethe logs cross, and a few pegs and lashings. Briers, woodbines, etc., will do for these. If the logs are large, they should be separately launched into the river, and towed into their proper places. Outriggers vastly increase the stability of a raft. The raft-fastening in common use is shown in f. 1: it is a stout, little wand, bent over the cross piece, and wedged into holes in the framework.

The rafts of European rivers are usually built on shore, and launched into the water: three slides are laid for the purpose, on the sloping bank of the river; upon these are laid the four poles, secured together by their ends, which are to form the framework of the raft (fig. 2). Other poles are put in between, until the whole is complete.

Bamboo rafts.--Where bamboo is plentiful, it is preferable to any other material for rafts. A few bamboos lashed into the shape of an ordinary field gate, but with two diagonals, and with handfuls of grass thrown on to make a platform, is very buoyant and serviceable.

Floating power of various Woods.--The floating power of a raft depends on the buoyancy of the wood of which it is made. I give, in a Table (p. 90), a list of the specific gravities of a few well-known woods; and have annexed to them a column of what may be called their "specific floating powers."*

[Footnote] *Specific floating power = (1/Spec. Gr.)--1. (Mem., the Table of these, in previous editions is incorrect.) Burden = weight of raft x specific floating power. Weight of wood required to support a given burden = Burden x (Spec. Gr./1-Spec. Gr.); the last column gives the latter factor.

Hence, to find the actual floating power of a raft, it is simply necessary to multiply its weight into the specific floating power of the wood of which it is made.

Thus, a raft of 12 logs of larch, averaging 30 lbs. each, weighs 360 lbs.; this multiplied by .47, is equal to 169 lbs. very nearly, which is the weight the raft will support without sinking. Poplar is the lightest on the list.

Examples: -- a raft of alder, weighing 200 lbs., would just support 200 x .25 or 50 lbs. A burden of 100 lbs. would require a raft of alder, weighing not les than 100 x 4.0, or 400 lbs. to support it.

Burning down Trees.--Where there are no means at hand to fell trees, they should be burnt down; two men may attend to the burning of twenty trees at one and the same time. When felled, their tops and branches, also, are to be trimmed by fire. (See "Hutting Palisades.")

Reed Rafts.--Mr. Andersson, in exploring the Tioughe River, in South Africa, met with two very simple forms of rafts: the one was a vast quantity of reeds cut down, heaped into a stack of from 30 to 50 feet in diameter, pushed out into the water, and allowed to float down stream: each day, as the reeds became water-logged, more were cut and thrown on the stack: its great bulk made it sure of passing over shallow places; and when it struck against "snags," the force of the water soon slewed it round and started it afresh. On an affair of this description, Mr. Andersson, with seven attendants, and two canoes hauled up upon it, descended the river for five days. The second reed raft was a small and neat one, and used for ferries; it was a mattress of reeds, 5 feet long, 3 broad, and some 8 inches thick, tied together with strips of the reeds themselves; to each of its four corners was fixed a post, made of an upright faggot of reeds, 18 inches high; other faggots connected the tops of the posts horizontally, in the place of rails: this was all; it held one or two men, and nothing but reeds or rushes were used in its construction.

Rafts of distended Hides.--"A single ox-hide may be made into a float capable of sustaining about 300 lbs.; the skin is to be cut to the largest possible circle, then gathered together round a short tube, to the inner end of which a valve, like that of a common pair of bellows, has been applied; it is inflated with bellows, and, as the air escapes by degrees, it may be refilled every ten or twelve hours." ('Handbook for Field Service.')

We read of the skins of animals, stuffed with hay to keep them distended, having been used by Alexander the Great, and by others.

Goatskin rafts are extensively used on the Tigris and elsewhere. These are inflated through one of the legs: they are generally lashed to a framework of wood, branches, and reeds, in such a way that the leg is accessible to a person sitting on the raft: when the air has in part escaped, he creeps round to the skins, one after the other, untying and re-inflating them in succession.

African Gourd Raft.--Over a large part of Bornu, especially on its Komadugu--the so-called River Yeou of Central Africa--no boat is used, except the following ingenious contrivance. It is called a "makara," or boat par eminence.

Two large open gourds are nicely balanced, and fixed, bottom downwards, on a bar or yoke of light wood, 4 feet long, 4 1/2 inches wide, and 3/4 or 1 inch thick. The fisherman, or traveller, packs his gear into the gourds; launches the makara into the river, and seats himself astride the bar. He then paddles off, with help of his hands (fig. 1). When he leaves the river, he carries the makara on his back (fig. 2). The late Dr. Barth wrote to me, "A person accustomed to such sort of voyage, sits very comfortably; a stranger holds on to one of the calabashes. There is no fear of capsizing, as the calabashes go under water, according to the weight put upon them, from ten to sixteen inches. The yoke is firmly fastened to the two calabashes, for it is never taken off. I am scarcely able, at present, to say how it is fastened. As far as I remember, it is fixed by a very firm lashing, which forms a sort of network over the calabash, and at the same time serves to strengthen the latter and guard it against an accident." It is obvious that the gourds might be replaced by inflated bags or baskets, covered with leather, or by copper or tin vessels, or by any other equivalent. I quite agree with Dr. Barth, that a makara would be particularly suitable for a traveller. In Bornu, they make large rafts, by putting a frame over several of these makara, placed side by side.

Rude Boats.--Brazilian Sailing-boat.--A simpler sailing-boat or raft could hardly be imagined than that shown in the figure; it is used by fishermen in Brazil.

Log Canoes are made by hollowing out a long tree by axe and by fire, and fastening an outrigger to one side of it, to give steadiness in the water. Recollect Robinson Crusoe's difficulty in launching his canoe after he had made it. (See "Rafts of Wood.") It is not a difficult, though a tedious operation, to burn out hollows in wood; the fire is confined by wet earth, that it may not extend too far to either side, and the charred matter is from time to time scraped away, and fresh fire raked back on the newly-exposed surface. A lazy savage sill be months in making a single canoe in this way.

Canoe of Three Planks.--A swift, safe, and graceful little boat, with a sharp stem and stern, and with a bottom that curves upwards at both ends, can be made out of three planks. The sketch, fig. 1, is a foreshortened view of the boat, and the diagram, fig. 2, shows the shape of the planks from which it is made. The thwart or seat shown in fig. 1 is important in giving the proper inclination to the sides of the boat, for, without it, they would tend to collapse; and the bottom would be less curved at either end. If the reader will take the trouble to trace fig. 2 on a stout card, to cut it out in a single piece (cutting only half through the cardboard where the planks touch), and to fasten it into shape with pieces of gummed paper, he will understand the architecture of the boat more easily than from any description. If he wishes to build a boat he had best proceed to make as large a model in pasteboard as his materials admit, and to cut the planks to scale, according to the pattern of his model. The grace of the boat depends on the cut of its planks, just as much as the elegance of a dress does on that of its cloth. These three-plank canoes are in frequent use in Norway. Bark may be used instead of planks. If the canoe be built of five planks instead of three, a second narrow side-plank being added above each gunwale, the section of the canoe is decidedly improved.

Inflatable India-rubber Boats are an invention that has proved invaluable to travellers: they have been used in all quarters of the globe, and are found to stand every climate. A full-sized one weighs only 40 lbs. They have done especial service in Arctic exploration; the waters of the Great Salt Lake, in the Mormon country, were first explored and navigated with one by Fremont; they were also employed by Dr. Livingstone on the rivers of South Africa. They stand a wonderful amount of wear and tear; but, as boats, they are inferior to native canoes, as they are very slow in the water: it is, indeed, impossible to paddle them against a moderate head-wind. For the general purposes of travellers, I should be inclined to recommend as small a macintosh-boat as can be constructed; just sufficient for one, or at the most for two, persons; such as the cloaks that are made inflatable, and convertible into boats. A traveller wants a portable boat, chiefly as means to cross over to a village for help, or to carry his valuables across a river, while the heavy things are risked at a ford; or for shooting, fishing, or surveying. Now a very small boat, weighing about ten pounds, would do as well for all these purposes as a large one, and would be far more portable.

It is perfectly easy to get into a macintosh-boat, after having been capsized out of it into deep water.

Basket-boat with Canvas Sides.--FitzRoy gives an account of a party of his sailors, whose boat had been stolen while they were encamped, putting out to sea in a large basket, woven with such boughs as were at hand, and covered with their canvas tent--the inside of which they had puddled with clay, to keep the water from oozing through too fast. They were eighteen hours afloat in this crazy craft. I mention this instance, to show how almost anything will make a boat. Canvas saturated with grease or oil is waterproof, and painted canvas is at first an excellent covering for a boat, but it soon becomes rotten.

Canoe of Reeds or Vegetable Fibre.--A canoe may be made of reeds, rushes, or the light inner bark of trees. Either of these materials is bound into three long faggots, pointed at one end: these are placed side by side and lashed together, and the result is a serviceable vessel, of the appearance fig. 1, and section as fig. 2. The Lake Titicaca, which lies far above the limit of trees, is navigated by boats made of rushes, and carrying sails woven of rushes also. Little boats are sometimes made of twigs, and are then plastered both inside and outside with clay, but they are very leaky.

Hide Tray.--This is a good contrivance; and if the hide be smoked (see "Hides") after it is set, it is vastly improved. In its simplest form, Peruvian travellers describe it as a dish or tray, consisting of a dry hide pinched up at the four corners, and each corner secured with a thorn. The preferable plan is to make eyelet-holes round its rim, and pass a thong through, drawing it pretty close: the tray is kept in shape, by sticks put inside and athwart its bottom.

Coracle and Skin Punt.--If a traveller has one hide only at his disposal he should make a coracle, if he has two, a punt. This last is a really useful boat; one in which very great distances of river may be descended with safety, and much luggage taken. Hide boats are very light, since the weight of a bullock's skin only averages 45 lbs.; but, unless well greased, they soon rot. When taken out of the water, they should be laid bottom upwards to dry. To make a proper and substantial coracle, a dozen or more oxier or other wands must be cut; these are to be bent, and have both ends stuck in the ground, in such a way as to form the framework of the required boat, bottom upwards, much like half a walnut-shell in shape, but flatter. Where these wands cross, they should be lashed; and sticks should be wattled in, to fill up gaps. A raw hide is then thrown over the framework, sewn in place, and left to dry. Finally, the projecting ends of the osiers have to be cut off. Should this boat, by any chance, prove a failure, the hide is not wasted, but can be removed, soaked till soft, and used again.

A skin punt requires two bullocks' or other hides, and also about ten small willow-trees, or other tough flexible wood, 14 feet long. Captain Palliser says that a couple of days is sufficient for two people to complete an entire punt of this description. He has been so good as to furnish me with the following minute description of the way of making this very useful boat.

1. The keel, stem and stern might be in one; but because the stem and stern ought to be strong, this whole line is made of two small trees lashed together with the thick ends outwards, as in fig. 1, where AB is a lithe clean little willow-tree, and ab another similar one. They are lashed together at their taper ends.

2. Cut notches half-way through KK, at about 20 to 25 inches from each end; then turn up the notched portions, and you have stem, keel and stern, all in one piece, as in fig. 2.

3. Stake out the ground, according to the size your boat will cover, by driving eight strong pointed stakes of wood into the ground; to these lash four cross (willow-tree) sticks, notched in two places, so that each of these four willows shall form two knees, as well as run across the bottom of the boat.

4. Bent two more main willows for gunwales for the boat, and two more for bottom rails. Each separate stick, as will be perceived by fig. 3, is lashed in five different places, and the keep in eight places.

The main framework being now completed, loosen it from the stakes driven into the ground.

5. Fasten a large number of little slender willow-twigs between each of the main cross-knees, as shown by the thin lines in fig. 3. It is then fit for covering. Lift it up like a basket, and turn it topsy-turvy.

6. Kill two bulls, skin them, and in skinning be careful to make your cuts in the skin down the rump to the hock of the animal, and down the brisket in front of the fore-leg to the knee, so as to have your skins as square as possible (fig. 4). Cut off the heads, and sew the skins together at the nape of the necks; and, while reeking, cover the wicker-work, turning them over it, the hairy side inwards, and fasten it all round by means of skin-cords. Cut holes with a knife round the edges, to pass the cords through, as you lash up to the top-rails of the boat.