Part 2 — CHAPTER XVI GLACIAL FEATURES (continued 2)

The method of survey planned was a combination of graphic triangulation and traverse with the micro-meteralidade. All directions were plotted on the plane-table which was oriented by backsight; distances were determined by the micro-meteralidade or triangulation, or both combined; and elevations were obtained by vertical angles. Finally, astronomical observations, usually to the sun, were taken at intervals of about 60 miles for latitude and azimuth to check the triangulation. No observations were made for differences in longitude because this would probably not have given any reliable result, considering the time and instruments at our disposal. Because the survey was to follow very closely the seventy-third meridian west of Greenwich, directions and distances, checked by latitude and azimuth observations, undoubtedly afforded far better means of determining the longitude than time observations. In other words, the time observations made in connection with azimuth observations were not used for computing longitudinal differences. Absolute longitude was taken from existing observations of principal places.

Principal topographical points were located by from two to four intersections from the triangulation and plane-table stations; and elevations were determined by vertical angle measurements. Whenever practicable, the contours were sketched in the field; the details of the topography otherwise depend upon a great number of photographs taken by Professor Bowman from critical stations or other points which it was possible to locate on the maps.

Cross-Section Map from Abancay to Camaná at the Pacific Ocean

Seven sheets. Scale, 1:125,000; contour interval, 200 feet. Datum is mean sea level. Astronomical control: 5 latitude and 5 azimuth observations as indicated on the accompanying topographic sheets.

On September 10th, returning from a reconnaissance survey of the Pampaconas River, I joined Professor Bowman’s party, Dr. Erving acting as my assistant. We crossed the Cordillera Vilcapampa and the Canyon of the Apurimac and after a week’s rest at Abancay started the topographic work near Hacienda San Gabriel south of Abancay. Working up the deep valley of Lambrama, observations for latitude and azimuth were made midway between Hacienda Matara and Caypi.

On October 4th we made our camp in newly fallen snow surrounded by beautiful glacial scenery. The next day on the high plateau, we passed sharp-crested glaciated peaks; a heavy thunder and hail storm broke out while I occupied the station at the pass, the storm continuing all the afternoon—a frequent occurrence. The camp was made 6 miles farther on, and the next morning I returned to finish the latter station. I succeeded in sketching the detailed topography just south of the pass, but shortly after noon, a furious storm arose similar to the one the day before, and made further topographic work impossible; to get connection farther on I patiently kept my eye to the eye-piece for more than an hour after the storm had started, and was fortunate to catch the station ahead in a single glimpse. I had a similar experience some days later at station 16,079, Antabamba Quadrangle, on the rim of the high-level puna, the storm preventing all topographic work and barely allowing a single moment in which to catch a dim sight of the signals ahead while I kept my eye steadily at the telescope to be ready for a favorable break in the heavy clouds and hail.

At Antabamba we got a new set of Indian carriers, who had orders to accompany us to Cotahuasi, the next sub-prefectura. Raimondi’s map indicates the distance between the two cities to be 35 miles, but although nothing definite was stated, we found out in Antabamba that the distance was considerably longer, and moreover that the entire route lay at a high altitude.

From the second day out of Antabamba until Huaynacotas was in sight in the Cotahuasi Canyon, a distance of 50 miles, the route lay at an altitude of from 16,000 to 17,630 feet, taking in 5 successive camps at an altitude from 15,500 to 17,000 feet; 12 successive stations had the following altitudes:

16,379feet

16,852"

17,104"

17,559"

17,675"—highest station occupied.

17,608"

17,633"

16,305"

17,630"

17,128"

16,794"

16,260"

The occupation of these high stations necessitated a great deal of climbing, doubly hard in this rarefied air, and often on volcanoes with a surface consisting of bowlders and ash and in the face of violent hailstorms that made extremely difficult the task of connecting up observations at successive stations.

At Cotahuasi a new pack-train was organized, and on October 25th I ventured to return alone to the high altitudes in order to continue the topography at the station at 17,633 feet on the summit of the Maritime Cordillera. Dr. Erving was obliged to leave on October 18th and Professor Bowman left a week later in order to carry out his plans for a physiographic study of the coast between Camaná and Mollendo. Philippi Angulo, a native of Taurisma, a town above Cotahuasi, acted as majordomo on this journey. Knowing the trail and the camp sites, I was able to pick out the stations ahead myself, and made good progress, returning to Cotahuasi on October 29th, three or four days earlier than planned. From Cotahuasi to the coast I had the assistance of Mr. Watkins. The most trying part of the last section of high altitude country was the great Pampa Colorada, crowned by the snow-capped peaks of Solimana and Coropuna, reaching heights of 20,730 and 21,703 feet respectively. The passing of this pampa took seven days and we arrived at Chuquibamba on November 9th. Two circumstances made the work on this stretch peculiarly difficult—the scarcity of camping places and the high temperature in the middle of the day, which heated the rarefied air to a degree that made long-distance shots very strenuous work for the eyes. Although our base signals were stone piles higher than a man, I was often forced to keep my eye to the telescope for hours to catch a glimpse of the signals; lack of time did not allow me to stop the telescope work in the hottest part of the day.

The top of Coropuna was intersected from the four stations: 16,344, 15,545, 16,168, and 16,664 feet elevation, the intersections giving a very small triangular error. The elevation of Mount Coropuna’s high peak as computed from these 4 stations is:

21,696 feet

21,746 "

21,714 "

21,657 "

Mean elevation 21,703 feet above sea level.

The elevation of Coropuna as derived from these four stations has thus a mean error of 18 feet (method of least squares) while the elevation of each of the four stations as carried up from mean sea level through 25 stations—vertical angles being observed in both directions—has an estimated mean error of 30 feet. The result of this is a mean error of 35 feet in Coropuna’s elevation above mean sea level.

The latitude is 15° 31′ 00″ S.; the longitude is 72° 42′ 40″ W. of Greenwich, the checking of these two determinations giving a result unexpectedly close.

On November 11th azimuth and latitude observations were taken at Chuquibamba and two days later we arrived at Aplao in the bottom of the splendid Majes Valley. In the northern part of this valley I was prevented from doing any plane-table work in the afternoons of four successive days. A strong gale set in each noon raising a regular sandstorm, that made seeing almost impossible, and blowing with such a velocity that it was impossible to set up the plane-table.

From Hacienda Cantas to Camaná we had to pass the western desert for a distance of 45 miles. We were told that on the entire distance there was only one camping place. This was at Jaguey de Majes, where there was a brook with just enough water for the animals but no fodder. Thus we faced the necessity of carrying water for ten men and fodder for 14 animals in excess of the usual cargo; and we were unable to foretell how many days the topography over the hot desert would require.

Although plane-table work in the desert was impossible at all except in the earliest and latest hours of the day, we made regular progress. We camped three nights at Jaguey and arrived on the fourth day at Las Lomas.

The next morning, on November 23rd, at an elevation of 2178 feet near the crest of the Coast Range, we were repaid for two months of laborious work by a glorious view of the Pacific Ocean and of the city of Camaná with her olive gardens in the midst of the desert sand.

The next day I observed latitude and azimuth at Camaná and in the night my companion and assistant Mr. Watkins and I returned across the desert to the railroad at Vitor.

Conclusions

The planned methods were followed very closely. In two cases only the plane-table had to be oriented by the magnetic needle, the backsights not being obtainable because of the impossibility of locating the last station, passing Indians having removed the signals.

In one case only the distance between two stations had to be determined by graphic triangulation exclusively, the base signals having been destroyed. Otherwise graphic triangulation was used as a check on distances.

Vertical angles were always measured in both directions with the exception of the above-mentioned cases.

Observations for azimuth were always taken to the sun before and after noon. The direction used in the azimuth observation was also taken with the prismatic compass. The mean of the magnetic declination thus found is: East 8° 30′ plus.

Observations for latitude were taken to the sun by the method of circum-meridian altitudes, except at the town of Vilcabamba where star observations were taken.

As a matter of course, observations to the sun are not so exact as star observations, especially in low latitudes where one can expect to observe the near zenith. However, working in high altitudes for long periods, moving camp every day and often arriving at camp 2 to 4 hours after sunset, I found it essential to have undisturbed rest at night. It was beyond my capacity to spend an hour or two of the night in finding the meridian and in making the observation. Furthermore, the astronomic observations were to check the topography mainly, the latter being the most exact method with the outfit at hand.

The following table contains the comparisons between the latitude stations as located on the map and by observation:

MapObservation

Camaná Quadrangle S16° 37′ 34″16° 37′ 34″[66]

Coropuna, station 9,691S15° 48′ 30″(15° 51′ 44″)

Cotahuasi, " 12,588S15° 11′ 40″15° 12′ 30″

La Cumbre, " 16,852S14° 28′ 10″14° 29′ 46″

Lambrama, " 8,341S13° 43′ 18″13° 43′ 14″

The other observations, with the exception of the one on the Coropuna Quadrangle, check probably as well as can be expected with the small and light outfit which we used, and under the exceptionally hard conditions of work. The observation on the Coropuna Quadrangle just south of Chuquibamba is, however, too much out. An explanation for this is that the meridian zenith distance was 1° 23′ 12″ only (in this case the exact formula was used in computing). Of course, an error or an accumulation of errors might have been made in the distances taken by the micrometer-alidade, but the first cause of error mentioned is the more probable, and this is indicated also by the fact that the location on the top of Mount Coropuna checks closely with the one determined in an entirely independent way by the railroad engineers.

For the cross-section map from Abancay to Camaná, the following statistics are desirable:

Micrometer traverse and graphic triangulation, with contours, field scale 1:90,000.

Total time required, days40.5

Average distance per days in miles7.5

Average number of plane-table stations occupied per day1.5

Average area per day in square miles38.

Located points per square mile0.25

Approximate elevations in excess of above, per square mile0.25

Highest station occupied, feet above sea level17,675.

Highest point located, feet above sea level21,703.

APPENDIX B Fossil Determinations

A few fossil collections were gathered in order that age determinations might be made. With the following identifications I have included a few fossils (I and II) collected by W. R. Rumbold and put into my hands in 1907. The Silurian is from a Bolivian locality south of La Paz but in the great belt of shales, slates, and schists which forms one of the oldest sedimentary series in the Eastern Andes of Peru as well as Bolivia. While no fossils were found in this series in Peru the rocks are provisionally referred to the Silurian. Fossil-bearing Carboniferous overlies them but no other indication of their age was obtained save their general position in the belt of schists already mentioned. I am indebted to Professor Charles Schuchert of Yale University for the following determinations.

I. Silurian

San Roque Mine, southwest slope of Santa Vela Cruz, Canton Ichocu, Province Inquisivi, Bolivia.

Sent by William R. Rumbold in 1907.

Climacograptus?

Pholidops trombetana Clarke?

Chonetes striatellus (Dalman).

Atrypa marginalis (Dalman)?

Cœlospira n. sp.

Ctenodonta, 2 or more species.

Hyolithes.

Klœdenia.

Calymene?

Dalmanites, a large species with a terminal tail spine.

Acidaspis.

These fossils indicate unmistakably Silurian and probably Middle Silurian. As all are from blue-black shales, brachiopods are the rarer fossils, while bivalves and trilobites are the common forms. The faunal aspect does not suggest relationship with that of Brazil as described by J. M. Clarke and not at all with that of North America. I believe this is the first time that Silurian fossils have been discovered in the high Andes.

II. Lower Devonian

Near north end of Lake Titicaca.

Leptocœlia flabellites (Conrad), very common.

Atrypa reticularis (Linnæus)?

This is a part of the well-known and widely distributed Lower Devonian fauna of the southern hemisphere.

III. Upper Carboniferous

All of the Upper Carboniferous lots of fossils represent the well-known South American fauna first noted by d’Orbigny in 1842, and later added to by Orville Derby. The time represented is the equivalent of the Pennsylvanian of North America.

Huascatay between Pasaje and Huancarama.

Crinoidal limestone.

Trepostomata Bryozoa.

Polypora. Common.

Streptorhynchus hallianus Derby. Common.

Chonetes glaber Geinitz. Rare.

Productus humboldti d’Orb. Rare.

" cora d’Orb. Rare.

" chandlessii Derby.

" sp. undet. Common.

" sp. undet. "

Spirifer condor d’Orb. Common.

Hustedia mormoni (Marcou). Rare.

Seminula argentea (Shepard). "

Pampaconas, Pampaconas valley near Vilcabamba.

Lophophyllum?

Rhombopora, etc.

Productus.

Camarophoria. Common.

Spirifer condor d’Orb.

Hustedia mormoni (Marcou).

Euomphalus. Large form.

Pongo de Mainique. Extreme eastern edge of Peruvian Cordillera.

Lophophyllum.

Productus chandlessii Derby.

" cora d’Orb.

Orthotetes correanus (Derby).

Spirifer condor d’Orb.

River bowlders and stones of Urubamba river, just beyond eastern edge of Cordillera at mouth of Ticumpinea river. (Detached and transported by stream action from the Upper Carboniferous at Pongo de Mainique.)

Mostly Trepostomata Bryozoa.

Many Productus spines.

Productus cora d’Orb.

Camarophoria. Same as at Pampaconas.

Productus sp. undet.

Cotahuasi A.

Lophophyllum.

Productus peruvianus d’Orb.

" sp. undet.

Camarophoria.

Pugnax near utah (Marcou).

Seminula argentea (Shepard)?

Cotahuasi B.

Productus cora d’Orb.

" near semireticulatus (Martin).

IV. Comanchian or Lower Cretaceous

Near Chuquibambilla.

Pecten near quadricostatus Sowerby.

Undet. bivalves and gastropods.

The echinid Laganum? colombianum d’Orb. A clypeasterid.

This Lower Cretaceous locality is evidently of the same horizon as that of Colombia illustrated by d’Orbigny in 1842 and described on pages 63-105.

APPENDIX C KEY TO PLACE NAMES

A, C, E, H, J, L, M, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, Y

Abancay, town, lat. 12° 35′, Figs. 20, 204. Abra Tocate, pass, between Yavero and Urubamba valleys, leaving latter at Rosalina, (Fig. 8). See also Fig. 55. Anta, town, lat. 13° 30′, Fig. 20. Antabamba, town, lat. 14° 20′, Figs. 20, 204. Aplao, town, lat. 16°, Figs. 20, 204. Apurimac, river, Fig. 20. Arequipa, town, lat. 16° 30′, Fig. 66. Arica, town, northern Chile, lat. 18° 30′. Arma, river, tributary of Apurimac, lat. 13° 25′, (Fig. 20); tributary of Ocoña, lat. 15° 30′, (Fig. 20). Arma, village, lat. 13° 15′, Fig. 20. See also Fig. 140. Auquibamba, hacienda, lat. 13° 40′, Fig. 204. Callao, town, lat. 12°, Fig. 66. Camaná, town, lat. 16° 40′, Figs. 20, 66, 204. Camisea, river, tributary of Urubamba entering from right, lat. 11° 15′. Camp 13, lat. 14° 30′. Cantas, hacienda, lat. 16° 15′, Fig. 204. Caraveli, town, lat. 16°, Fig. 66. Catacaos, town, lat. 5° 30′, Fig. 66. Caylloma, town and mines, lat. 15° 30′, Fig. 66. Caypi, village, lat. 13° 45′. Central Ranges, lat. 14°, Fig. 20. See also Fig. 157. Cerro Azul, town, lat. 13°, Fig. 66. Chachani, mt., overlooking Arequipa, lat. 16° 30′, (Fig. 66). Chaupimayu, river, tributary of Urubamba entering at Sahuayaco, q.v. Chili, river, tributary of Vitor River, lat. 16° 30′, (Fig. 66). Chinche, hacienda, Urubamba Valley above Santa Ana, lat. 13°, (Fig. 20). Chira, river, lat. 5°, Fig. 66. Choclococha, lake, lat. 13° 30′, Figs. 66, 68. Choqquequirau, ruins, canyon of Apurimac above junction of Pachachaca River, lat. 13° 25′, (Fig. 20). Choquetira, village, lat. 13° 20′, Fig. 20. See also Fig. 136. Chosica, village, lat. 12°, Fig. 66. Chuquibamba, town, lat. 15° 50′, Figs. 20, 204. Chuquibambilla, village, lat. 14°, Figs. 20, 204. Chuquito, pass, Cordillera Vilcapampa between Arma and Vilcabamba valleys, lat. 13° 10′, (Fig. 20). See also Fig. 139. Coast Range, Figs. 66, 204. Cochabamba, city, Bolivia, lat. 17° 20′, long. 66° 20′. Colorada, pampa, lat. 15° 30′, Fig. 204. Colpani, village, lower end of Canyon of Torontoy (Urubamba River), lat. 13° 10′. See Fig. 158. Copacavana, village, Bolivia, lat. 16° 10′, long. 69° 10′. Coribeni, river, lat. 12° 40′, Fig. 8. Coropuna, mt., lat. 15° 30′, Figs. 20, 204. Corralpata, village, Apurimac Valley near Incahuasi. Cosos, village, lat. 16°, Fig. 204. Cotabambas, town, Apurimac Valley, lat. 13° 45′, (Fig. 20). Cotahuasi, town, lat. 15° 10′, Figs. 20, 204. Cuzco, city, lat. 13° 30′, Fig. 20. Echarati, hacienda, on the Urubamba River between Santa Ana and Rosalina, lat. 12° 40′. See inset map, Fig. 8, and also Fig. 54. Huadquiña, hacienda, Urubamba River above junction with Vilcabamba, lat. 13° 10′, (Fig. 20). See also Fig. 158. Huadquirca, village, lat. 14° 15′, Figs. 20, 204. Huaipo, lake, north of Anta, lat. 13° 25′, (Fig. 20). Huambo, village, left bank Pachachaca River between Huancarama and Pasaje, lat. 13° 35′, (Fig. 20). Huancarama, town, lat. 13° 40′, Fig. 20. Huancarqui, village, lat. 16° 5′, Fig. 204. Huascatay, village, left bank of Apurimac above Pasaje, lat. 13° 30′, (Fig. 20). Huaynacotas, village, lat. 15° 10′, Fig. 204. Huichihua, village, lat. 14° 10′, Fig. 204. (Tablazo de) Ica, plateau, lat. 14°-15° 30′, Fig. 66. Ica, town, lat. 14°, Figs. 66, 67. Incahuasi, village, lat. 13° 20′, Fig. 20. Iquique, town, northern Chile, lat. 20° 15′. (Pampa de) Islay, south of Vitor River, (Fig. 66). Jaguey, village, Pampa de Sihuas, q.v. La Joya, pampa, station on Mollendo-Puno R.R., 16° 40′, (Fig. 66). Lambrama, village, lat. 12° 50′, Fig. 20. Lima, city, lat. 12°, Fig. 66. Machu Picchu, ruins, gorge of Torontoy, q.v., lat. 13° 10′. Majes, river, Fig. 204. Manugali, river, tributary of Urubamba entering from left above Puviriari River, lat. 12° 20′, (Fig. 8). Maritime Cordillera, Fig. 204. Matara, village, lat. 14° 20′, Fig. 204. (El) Misti, mt., lat. 16° 30′, Fig. 66. Mollendo, town, lat. 17°, Fig. 66. Moquegua, town, lat. 17°, Fig. 66. Morococha, mines, lat. 11° 45′, Fig. 66. Mulanquiato, settlement, lat. 12° 10′, Fig. 8. Occobamba, river, uniting with Yanatili, q.v. Ocoña, river, lat. 15°-16° 30′, Figs. 20, 66. Ollantaytambo, village. Urubamba River below Urubamba town, lat. 13° 15′, (Fig. 20), and see inset map, Fig. 8. Pabellon, hacienda, Urubamba River above Rosalina, (Fig. 20). See also Fig. 55. Pacasmayo, town, lat. 7° 30′, Fig. 66. Pachatusca (Pachatusun), mt., overlooking Cuzco to northeast, lat. 13° 30′. Pachitea, river, tributary of Ucayali entering from left, lat. 8° 50′. Paita, town, lat. 5°, Fig. 66. Pampacolea, village, south of Coropuna, q.v. Pampaconas, river, known in lower course as Cosireni, tributary of Urubamba River, (Fig. 8). Source in Cordillera Vilcapampa west of Vilcabamba. Pampas, river, tributary of Apurimac entering from left, lat. 13° 20′. Panta, mt., Cordillera Vilcapampa, northwest of Arma, lat. 13° 15′, (Fig. 20). See also Fig. 136. Panticalla, pass, Urubamba Valley above Torontoy, lat. 13° 10′. Pasaje, hacienda and ferry, lat. 13° 30′, Fig. 20. Paucartambo (Yavero), river, q.v. Paucartambo, town, head of Paucartambo (Yavero) River, lat. 13° 20′, long. 71° 40′. Inset map, Fig. 8. Pichu-Pichu, mt., overlooking Arequipa, lat. 16°, (Fig. 66). Pilcopata, river, tributary of Upper Madre de Dios east of Paucartambo, lat. 13°. Piñi-piñi, river, tributary of Upper Madre de Dios east of Paucartambo, lat. 13°. Pisco, town, lat. 14°, Fig. 66. Piura, river, lat. 5°-6°, Fig. 66. Piura, town, lat. 5° 30′, Fig. 66. Pomareni, river, lat. 12°, Fig. 8. Pongo de Mainique, rapids, lat. 12°, Fig. 8. Pucamoco, hacienda, Urubamba River, between Santa Ana and Rosalina, (Fig. 20). Puquiura, village, lat. 13° 5′, Fig. 20. See also Fig. 158. Distinguish Puqura in Anta basin near Cuzco. Puqura, village, Anta basin, east of Anta, lat. 13° 30′, (Fig. 20). Quilca, town, lat. 16° 40′, Fig. 66. Quillagua, village, northern Chile, lat. 21° 30′, long. 69° 35′. Rosalina, settlement, lat. 12° 35′, Fig. 8. See also Fig. 20. Sahuayaco, hacienda, Urubamba Valley above Rosalina, (Fig. 20). See also Fig. 55. Salamanca, town, lat. 15° 30′, Fig. 20. Salaverry, town, lat. 8°, Fig. 66. Salcantay, mt., lat. 13° 20′, Fig. 20. San Miguel, bridge, canyon of Torontoy near Machu Picchu, lat. 13° 10′. Santa Ana, hacienda, lat. 12° 50′, Fig. 20. Santa Ana, river, name applied to the Urubamba in the region about hacienda Santa Ana. Santa Lucia, mines, lat. 16°, Fig. 66. Santo Anato, hacienda, La Sama’s hut, 12° 35′, Fig. 8. Sihuas, Pampa de, lat. 16° 30′, Fig. 204. Sillilica, Cordillera, east of Iquique, northern Chile. Sintulini, rapids of Urubamba River above junction of Pomareni, lat. 12° 10′, (Fig. 8). Sirialo, river, lat. 12° 40′, Fig. 8. Soiroccocha, mt., Cordillera Vilcapampa north of Arma, lat. 13° 15′, (Fig. 20). Solimana, mt., lat. 15° 20′, Fig. 204. Soray, mt., Cordillera Vilcapampa, southeast of Mt. Salcantay, lat. 13° 20′, (Fig. 20). Sotospampa, village, near Lambrama, lat. 13° 50′, (Fig. 204). Sullana, town, Chira River, lat. 5°, (Fig. 66). Taurisma, village, lat. 15° 10′, Fig. 204. Ticumpinea, river, tributary of Urubamba entering from right below Pongo de Mainique, lat. 11° 50′, (Fig. 8). Timpia, river, tributary of Urubamba entering from right, lat. 11° 45′. Tono, river, tributary of Upper Madre de Dios, east of Paucartambo, lat. 13°. Torontoy, canyon of the Urubamba between the villages of Torontoy and Colpani, lat. 13° 10′-13° 15′. Torontoy, village at the head of the canyon of the same name, lat. 13° 15′. See inset map, Fig. 8. Tumbez, town, lat. 4° 30′, Fig. 66. Tunari, Cerro de, mt., northwest of Cochabamba, q.v. Urubamba, river, Fig. 20. Urubamba, town, lat. 13° 20′, Fig. 20. Vilcabamba, river, tributary of Urubamba River entering from left above Santa Ana, lat. 13°, Fig. 8. See also Fig. 158. Vilcabamba, village, lat. 13° 5′, Fig. 20. See also Fig. 158. Vilcanota, Cordillera, southern Peru. Vilcanota, river, name applied to Urubamba above lat. of Cuzco, 13° 30′, (Fig. 20). Vilcapampa, Cordillera, lat. 13° 20′, Fig. 20. Vilque, town, southern Peru, lat. 15° 50′, long. 70° 30′. Vitor, pampa, lat. 16° 30′, Fig. 66. Vitor, river, Fig. 66. Yanahuara, pass, between Urubamba and Yanatili valleys, lat. 13° 10′. Yanatili, river, tributary of Urubamba entering from right above Rosalina, (Fig. 20). See also Fig. 65. Yavero (Paucartambo), river, tributary of Urubamba entering from right, lat. 12° 10′, Fig. 8. Yavero, settlement, at junction of Yavero and Urubamba rivers, lat. 12° 10′, Fig. 8. Yunguyo, town, southern Peru, lat. 16° 20′, long. 69° 10′. Yuyato, river, lat. 12° 5′, Fig. 8.

INDEX

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, Y

Abancay, 32, 62, 64, 78, 92, 93, 181, 189, 221, 243; suppressing a revolution, 89-91; temperature curve (diagr.), opp. p. 180 Abancay basin, 154 Abancay to Camaná cross-section map, work, observation and statistics, 315 Abra Tocate, 73, 80, 81; topography and vegetation from (ill.), opp. p. 19 Abra de Malaga, 276 Acosta, 205 Adams, G. I., 255 Agriculture, 74-76, 152 Aguardiente, 74. See Brandy Alcohol, 5, 6 Alluvial fans, 60-63, 70, 270 Alluvial fill, 270-273; view in Majes Valley (ill.), opp. p. 230 Alpacas, 5, 52 Alto de los Huesos (ill.), opp. p. 7 Amazon basin, Humboldt’s dream of conquest, 33-35; Indian tribes, 36 Amazonia, 20, 26 Ancachs, 171 Andahuaylas, 89 Andrews, A, C., 295 Angulo, Philippi, 317 Anta, 187, 189, 190 Anta basin, 62, 108, 197; geology, 250; view looking north from hill near Anta (ill.), opp. p. 184 Antabamba, 52, 53, 95, 96, 99, 101, 189, 197, 243, 303, 316; Governor, 95-99, 100-101; Lieutenant Governor, 96-99, 101; sketch section, 243 Antabamba Canyon, view across (ill.), opp. p. 106 Antabamba Quadrangle, 316, opp. p. 282 (topog. sheet) Antabamba region, geologic sketch map and section, 245 Antabamba Valley, 96 “Antis,” 39 Aplao, 106, 115, 116, 181, 226, 231, 255, 256, 257, 273, 318; composite structure section (diagr.), 259; temperature curve (diagr.), 181 Aplao Quadrangle (topog. sheet), opp. p. 120 Appendix A, 315 Appendix B, 321 Appendix C, 324 Apurimac, 51, 57, 60, 94, 153, 154; crossing at Pasaje (ills.), opp. p. 91; regional diagram of canyoned country, 58 Apurimac Canyon, 189; cloud belt (ill.), opp. p. 150 Arequipa, 52, 89, 92, 117, 120, 137, 284; glacial features near (sketches), 280 Argentina, 93 Arica, 130, 132, 198 Arma, 67, 189, 212-214 Arrieros, Pampa de, 280 Asymmetrical peaks (ill.), opp. p. 281 Asymmetry, 305-313; cross-section of ridge (diagr.), 306; postglacial volcano (diagr.), 306 Auquibamba, 93 Avalanches, 290 Bailey, S. I., 284 Bandits, 95 Basins, 60, 154; regional diagram, 61; climatic cross-section (diagr.), 62 Batholith, Vilcapampa, 215-224 Belaunde brothers, 116 Bergschrunds, 294-305 Bingham, Hiram, ix, 104, 157 Block diagram of physiography of Andes, 186 Boatmen, Indian, 13 Bogotá, Cordillera of, 205 Bolivia, 93, 176, 190, 193, 195, 240, 241, 249, 322; snowline, 275-277 Bolivian boundary, 68 Border valleys of the Eastern Andes, 68-87 Borneo, 206 Bowman, Isaiah, 8, 316 Brandy, 74, 75, 76, 82-83 Bravo, José, 245 Bumstead, A. H., ix Cacao, 74, 83 Cacti, 150; arboreal (ill.), opp. p. 90 Calchaquí Valley, 250 Callao, 118; cloudiness (with diagr.), 133; temperature (with diagr.), 126-129; wind roses (diagrs.), 128 Camaná, 21, 112, 115, 116, 117, 118, 140-141, 147, 181, 225, 226, 227, 266, 318; coastal Tertiary, 253, 254; plain of, 229; temperature curve (diagr.), 181 Camaná Quadrangle (topog. sheet), opp. p. 114 Camaná Valley, 257 Camaná-Vitor region, 117 Camino del Peñon, 110 Camisea, 36 Camp 13, 100, 180, 181; temperature curve (diagr.), 180 Campas, 37 Canals for bringing water, 59, 60, 155; projected, Maritime Cordillera (diagr.), 118 Cantas, 115, 116, 226, 253, 257, 273, 318 Canyon walls (ills.), opp. p. 218 Canyoned country, regional diagram, 58; valley climates (diagr.), 59 Canyons, 60, 72, 73, 197, 219; Majes River (ill.), opp. p. 230; topographic conditions before formation of deep canyons in Maritime Cordillera (ill.), opp. p. 184 Caraveli, climate data, 134-136; wind roses (diagrs.), 136 Carboniferous fossils, 323 Carboniferous strata, 241-247; hypothetical distribution of land and sea (diagr.), 246 Cashibos, 37 Catacaos, 119 Cattle tracks (ill.), opp. p. 226 Caucho, 29 Caylloma, 164, 165 Caypi, 316 Central Ranges, asymmetrical peaks (ill.), opp. p. 281; glacial features with lateral moraines (ill.), opp. p. 269; glacial topography between Lambrama and Antabamba (ill.), opp. p. 280; steep cirque walls (ill.), opp. p. 286 Cerro Azul, 118 Cerro de Tunari, 176 Chachani, 280, 284 Chanchamayo, 77 Character. See Human character Chaupimayu Valley, 77 Chicha, 86 Chile, 130, 132, 193, 260 Chili River, 120 Chili Valley, opp. p. 7 (ill.), 117 Chimborazo, 281 Chinche, 271, 272 Chira River, depth diagram, 119, 120 Chirumbia, 12 Choclococha, Lake, 120 Chonta Campas, 37 Choqquequirau, 154 Choquetira, 66, 67, 211; bowldery fill below, 269; glacial features, 206-207 Choquetira Valley, moraine, (ill.), opp. p. 208 Chosica, 136, 137; cloudiness (diagr.), 138 Chuño, 57 Chuntaguirus, 41 Chuquibamba, 54, 72, 107, 110, 111, 112, 115, 116, 273, 317-319; sediments, 258 Chuquibambilla, 53, 189, 220, 221, 222, 236, 243; alluvial fill (diagr.), 272; Carboniferous, 244; fossils, 323 Chuquito pass, crossing (ill.), opp. p. 7; glacial trough (ill.), opp. p. 205 Cirque walls, steep (ill.), opp. p. 286 Cirques, 294-305; development (diagr.), 300; development, further stages (diagr.), 301; mode of formation (diagr.), 297 Clarke, J. M., 321 Clearing in forest (ill.), opp. p. 25 Climate, coast, 125-147; eastern border, 147-153; Inter-Andean valleys, 153-155; see also Meteorological records Climatic belts, 121-122; map, 123 Climatology, 121-156 Cliza, 276 Cloud-banners, 16 Cloud belt, 143, opp. p. 150 (ill.) Cloudiness, 132; Callao (with diagr.), 133; desert station near Caraveli (diagrs.), 137; Machu Picchu, 160; Santa Lucia (diagr.), 169 Clouds, Inter-Andean Valley, 155; Santa Ana (ill.), opp. p. 180; Santa Lucia, 168; types on eastern border of Andes (diagrs.), 148; see also Fog Coast Range, 111, 113, 114, 116, 118, 225-232; climate, 122-147; direction, 267; diagram to show progressive lowering of saturation temperature in a desert, 127; geology, 258; view between Mollendo and Arequipa in June (ill.), opp. p. 226; wet and dry seasons (diagrs.), 132 Coastal belt, map of irrigated and irrigable land, 113 Coastal desert, 110-120; regional diagram of physical relations, 112; see also Deserts Coastal planter, 6 Coastal region, topographic and climatic provinces (diagr.), 125 Coastal terraces, 225-232 Coca, 74, 77, 82-83 Coca seed beds (ill.), opp. p. 74 Cochabamba, 93; temperature (diagrs. of ranges), insert opp. p. 178; weather data, 176-178 Cochabamba Indians, 276 Colombia, 205 Colorada, Pampa de, 114, 317 Colpani, 72, 215, 216, 222, 223; from ice to sugar cane (ill.), opp. p. 3 Comanchian fossils, 323 Cómas, 155 Compañia Gomera de Mainique, 29, 31, 32 Concession plan, 29 Conibos, 44 Contador, 84-85 Copacavana, 176 Cordilleras, 4, 6, 20, 197 Coribeni, 15 Corn, 57, 59, 62 Coropuna, 109, 110, 112, 202, 253, 317, 319; elevation, 317; glaciation, 307; snowline, 283-285 Coropuna expedition, 104 Coropuna Quadrangle, 197, opp. p. 188 (topog. sheet), 319 Corralpata, 51, 59 Cosos, 231 Cotabambas, 78 Cotahuasi, 4, 5, 52, 54, 60, 97, 101, 103, 104, 180, 197, 199, 316, 317; alluvial fill, 272; fossils, 322; geologic sketch maps and cross-section, 247; rug weaver (ill.), opp. p. 68; snowline above, 282-283; temperature curve (diagr.), 180; view (ill.), opp. p. 57 Cotahuasi Canyon, 247, 248, 316 Cotahuasi Quadrangle (topog. sheet), opp. p. 192 Cotahuasi Valley, geology, 258 Cotton, 76, 116, 117 Crest lines, asymmetrical, 305-313 Cretaceous formations, 247-251 Cretaceous fossils, 323 Crucero Alto, 188 Cuzco, 8, 10, 21, 52, 62, 63, 92, 102, 107, 193, 197; railroad to Santa Ana, 69-70; snow, 276; view (ill.), opp. p. 66 Cuzco basin, 61, 62, 154, 251; slopes at outlet (diagr.), 185 Deformations. See Intrusions Derby, Orville, 322 Desaguadero Valley, 193 Deserts, cloudiness (diagrs.), 137; rain, 138-140; sea-breeze in, 132; tropical forest, 36-37; wind roses (diagrs.), 136 Diagrams. See Regional diagrams Dikes, 223 Drunkenness, 103, 105-106, 108 Dry valleys, 114-115 Dunes, 114, 254; Majes Valley, 262-267; movement, 132; superimposed (diagrs.), 265 Duque, Señor, 78 Eastern Andes, 204-224; regional diagram, 22 Eastern border, climate, 147-153 Eastern valley planter, 3 Eastern valleys, 68-87; climate cross-section (diagr.), 79 Echarati, 10, 77, 78, 80, 82; plantation scene (ill.), opp. p. 75 Ecuador volcanoes, 281 Epiphyte (ill.), opp. p. 78 Erdis, E. C., 158 Erosion, 192-195, 210, 211, 305; see also Glacial erosion; Nivation Erving, Dr. W. G., 13, 101, 316, 317 Faena Indians, 75, 83-87 Feasts and fairs, 175-176 Ferries, 147 Fig tree (ill.), opp. p. 75 Floods, 151 Fog, 132, 139, 143; conditions along coast from Camaná to Mollendo, 144-145; see also Clouds Forest dweller, 1 Forest Indians. See Machigangas Forests, clearing (ill.), opp. p. 25; dense ground cover, trees, epiphytes, and parasites (ill.), opp. p. 155; moss-draped trees (ill.), opp. p. 24; mountain, 148-153; mule trail (ill.), opp. p. 18; tropical, near Pabellon (ill.), opp. p. 150; tropical vegetation (ill.), opp. p. 18; type at Sahuayaco (ill.), opp. p. 90 Fossils, 245, 321; list of, by geologic periods and localities, 321 Frankland, 278, 309 Frost line, 56-57 Garua, 132 Geographical basis of revolutions and of human character, 88-109 Geologic dates, 195-196; Majes Valley, 258, 261; west coast fault, 248-249 Geologic development. See Physiographic and geologic development Gilbert, G. K., 300, 302, 305 Glacial deposits, 268 Glacial erosion, Central Andes, 305-313; composite sketch of general conditions, 312; graphic representation of amount during glacial period, 311 Glacial features, 274-313; Arequipa (sketches), 280; Central Ranges; lateral moraines (ill.), opp. p. 269; eastern slopes of Cordillera Vilcapampa (map), 210 Glacial retreat, 208-214 Glacial sculpture, heart of the Cordillera Vilcapampa (map), 212; southwestern flank of Cordillera Vilcapampa (map), 207 Glacial topography between Lambrama and Antabamba (ill.), opp. p. 280; Maritime Cordillera, north of divide on 73d meridian (ill.), opp. p. 281 Glacial trough, view near Chuquito pass (ill.), opp. p. 208 Glaciation, 64, 271; Sierra Nevada, 305; Vilcapampa, 204-214; Western Andes, 202 Glaciers, Panta Mountain (ill.), opp. p. 287; view (ill.), opp. p. 205 Gomara, 34 Gonzales, Señor, 78 Government, bad, 95 Gran Pajonal, 37 Granite, 215-224; see also Intrusions Grass (ill.), opp. p. 154 Gregory, J. W., 205 Hacendado, 55, 60 Haciendas, 78, 83, 86 Hann, J., 126, 176, 278 Hendriksen, Kai, 98, 315 Hettner, 205 Hevea, 29 Highest habitations in the world, 52, 96; regional diagram of, 50; stone hut (ill.), opp. p. 48 Highland shepherd, 4 Highlands, 46 Hobbs, W. H., 286, 287 Horses, 66, opp. p. 91 (ill.) Huadquiña, 70, 71, 72, 75, 82, 86, 219; hacienda (ill.), opp. p. 73; terraces, 272 Huadquirca, 243 Huaipo, Lake, 250, 251 Huallaga basin, 153 Huambo, 243 Huancarama, 64, 87, 189, 243, 303; view (ill.), opp. p. 106 Huancarqui, 257 Huari, 176 Huascatay, 189, 242, 243; Carboniferous, 244; fossils, 322 Huasco basin, 275 Huaynacotas, 103, 316; terraced valley slope (ill.), opp. p. 56; terraced valley slopes (ill.), opp. p. 199 Huichihua, 278; alluvial fill (diagr.), 272; (ill.), opp. p. 67 Human character, geographic basis, 88-109 Humboldt, 33-35, 286 Humboldt Current, 126, 143 Huts, 103; highest in Peru (ill.), opp. p. 48; shepherds’, 47, 48, 52, 55 Ica Valley, 120; irrigated and irrigable land (diagr.), 118 Ice erosion. See Glacial erosion Incahuasi, 51, 155, 285 Incas, 39, 44, 46, 62, 63, 68, 77, 109, 175 Incharate, 78 Indian boatmen, 13 Indians, as laborers, 26-28, 31-32; basin type, 63-64; forest, see Machigangas; life and tastes, 107-108; mountain, 46-67, 101-102; plateau, 40-41, 44-45, 100, 106-109; troops, 90, 91; wrongs, 14, 102 Ingomwimbi, 206 Instruments, surveying, 315 Inter-Andean valleys, climate, 153-155 Intermont basin. See Basins Intrusions, deformations north of Lambrama (diagr.), 243; deformative effects on limestone strata near Chuquibambilla (diagr.), 221; lower Urubamba Valley (geologic sketch map), 237; overthrust folds in detail near Chuquibambilla (diagr.), 222; principles, 217-219 Intrusions, Vilcapampa, deformative effects near Puquiura (diagr.), 216; relation of granite to schist near Colpani (with diagr.), 216 Iquique, wind roses (diagrs.), 131 Irrigation, 72, 76, 80, 82; coastal belt (map), 113; coastal desert, 119-120; Ica Valley (diagr.), 118 Islay, Pampa de, 114 Italians, 18, 81 Jaguey, 254, 255, 318 Jesuits, 68 Johnson, W. D., 213, 295, 296, 299, 300 Kenia, Mt., 206, 274 Kerbey, Major, 8, 10 Kibo, 206, 274 Kilimandjaro, 205, 206 Kinibalu, 206 Krüger, Herr, 157 Labor, 26-28, 31-32, 42-43, 74-75, 83-84 La Cumbre Quadrangle, 197, 202, opp. p. 202 (topog. sheet) La Joya, 132, 133; cloudiness (diagr.), 134; temperature curves (diagr.), 134; wind roses (diagrs.), 135 Lambrama, 90, 92, 285, 316; camp near (ill.), opp. p. 6 Lambrama Quadrangle (topog. sheet), opp. p. 304 Lambrama Valley, deformation types (diagr.), 243 Land and sea, Carboniferous hypothetical distribution compared with present (diagr.), 246 Landscape, 183-198 Lanius, P. B., 13 La Paz, 93, 109, 276, 321 La Sama, 12, 13, 40 Las Lomas, 318 Lava flows, 199 Lava plateau, 197, 199, 307-308; regional diagram of physical conditions, 55; summit above Cotahuasi (ill.), opp. p. 204 Lavas, volume, 201 Lima, 92, 93, 118, 137, 138; cloud, 132, 143; temperature, 126 Limestone, sketch to show deformed, 243 Little, J. P., 135, 157 Llica, 275 Lower Cretaceous fossils, 323 Lower Devonian fossils, 321 Machigangas, 10, 11, 12, 14, 18, 19, 31, 36-45, 81; ornaments and fabrics (ill.), opp. p. 27; trading with (ill.), opp. p. 26 Machu Picchu, 72, 220; weather data (with diagr.), 158-160 Madeira-Mamoré railroad, 33 Madre de Dios, 1, 2, 33 Majes River, 147, 225, 227, 266, 267; Canyon (ill.), opp. p. 230 Majes Valley, 106, 111, 116, 117, 120, 226, 227, 229-231, 318; alluvial fill, 273; date of formation, 258, 261; desert coast (ill.), opp. p. 110; dunes, 262-267; erosion and uplift, 261; lower and upper sandstones (ill.), opp. p. 250; sediments, 255; snowline, 283; steep walls and alluvial fill (ill.), opp. p. 230; structural details near Aplao (sketch section), 255; structural details on south wall near Cantas (sketch section), 257; structural relations at Aplao (field sketch), 256; Tertiary deposits, 253-254; wind, 130; view below Cantas (ill.), opp. p. 110; view down canyon (ill.), opp. p. 144 Malaria, 14, 38 Marañon, 41, 59 Marcoy, 79 Marine terrace at Mollendo (ill.), opp. p. 226 Maritime Cordillera, 52, 199-203, 233; asymmetry of ridges, 308-309; glacial features, 307; glacial topography north of divide on 73d meridian (ill.), opp. p. 281; pre-volcanic topography, 200; post-glacial volcano, asymmetrical (diagr.), 306; regional diagrams, 50, 52; test of explanation of cirques, 303; volcanoes, tuffs, lava flows (ill.), opp. p. 204; western border rocks (geologic section), 257; see also Lava plateau Matara, 99, 316 Matthes, F. E., 286, 287, 289 Mature slopes, 185-193; between Ollantaytambo and Urubamba (ill.), opp. p. 185; dissected, north of Anta (ill.), opp. p. 185 Mawenzi, 206 Meanders, 16, 17 Médanos, 114 Mendoza, Padre, 11 Mer de Glace, 203 Meteorological records, 157-181 Mexican revolutions, 93 Middendorf, 143 Miller, General, 41, 78, 147 Minchin, 241 Misti, El, opp. p. 7 (ill.), 284 Molina, Christoval de, 175 Mollendo, 93, 105, 117; cloud belt, 143; cloudiness (diagr.), 134; coastal terraces, 225; humidity, 133; marine terrace (ill.), opp. p. 226; profile of coastal terraces (diagr.), 227; temperature curves (diagr.), 134; wind roses (diagrs.), 129 Mollendo-Arequipa railroad, 117 Mollendo rubber, 32 Montaña, 148, 149, 153 Moquegua, 117; geologic relations (diagr.), 255 Moraines, 207, 210-211; Choquetira Valley (ill.), opp. p. 208; view (ill.), opp. p. 208 Morales, Señor, 11 Morococha, temperature (diagrs. of ranges), insert opp. p. 172; weather data (with diagrs.), 171-176 Morococha Mining Co., 157, 171 Morro de Arica, 132 Moss, large ground. See Yareta Moss-draped trees (ill.), opp. p. 24 Mountain-side trail (ill.), opp. p. 78 Mountains, tropical, as climate registers, 206 Mulanquiato, 10, 18, 19 Mule trail (ill.), opp. p. 18 Mules, 23, 24, 94, opp. p. 91 (ill.) Névé, 286-305 Niño, El, 137-138 Nivation, 285-294; “pocked” surface (ill.), opp. p. 286 Northeastern border, topographic and structural section (diagr.), 241 Occobamba Valley, 79 Ocean currents of adjacent waters, 121-122 (map), 123 Ollantaytambo, 70, 73, 75, 250, 271; terraced valley floor (ill.), opp. p. 56 d’Orbigny, 322 Oruro, 93 Pabellon, 80, 82, opp. p. 150 Pacasmayo, Carboniferous land plants, 245 Pachitea, 37, 38 Pacific Ocean basin, 248 Paleozoic strata (ill.), opp. p. 198 Palma carmona, 29 Palmer, H. S., 250 Paltaybamba, opp. p. 74 Pampacolca, 109 Pampaconas, 69, 211, 213, 215; rounded slopes near Vilcabamba (ill.), opp. p. 72; Carboniferous, 244; fossils, 322; snow action, 291 Pampaconas River, 316 Pampas, 114, 198; climate data, 134-136 Pampas, river, 189 Panta, mt., 214; view, with glacier system (ill.), opp. p. 287 Pará rubber, 32 Pasaje, 51, 57, 59, 60, 236, 238, 240, 241, 243; Carboniferous, 244; crossing the Apurimac (ills.), opp. p. 91 Paschinger, 274 Pastures, 141, 187; Alpine (ill.), opp. p. 58 Paucartambo, 42, 77 Paucartambo River. See Yavero River Payta, 225 Penck, A., 205 Peonage, 25, 27, 28 Pereira, Señor, 10, 18 Perene, 155 Physiographic and geologic development, 233-273 Physiographic evidence, value, 193-195 Physiographic principles, 217 Physiography, 183-186; Southern Peru, summary, 197-198 Pichu-Pichu, 284 Piedmont accumulations, 260 Pilcopata, 36 Piñi-piñi, 36 Pisco, 130; Carboniferous land plants, 247 Piura, 119 Piura River, depth diagram, 119, 120 Piura Valley, 48 Place names, key to, 324 Plantations, 86; see also Haciendas Planter, coastal, 6 Planters, valley, 3, 75, 76 Plateau Indians, 40-41, 44-45, 100, 106-109 Plateaus, 196-197 Pleistocene deposits, 267-273 Pomareni, 19 Pongo de Mainique, 8, 9, 11, 15-20, 40, 71, 179, 239, 241, 242, 273; canoe in rapid above (ill.), opp. p. 11; Carboniferous, 244; dugout in rapids below (ill.), opp. p. 2; fossils, 322; temperature curve (diagr.), 178; upper entrance (ill.), opp. p. 10; vegetation, clearing, and rubber station (ill.), opp. p. 2 Poopó, 195 Potato field (ill.), opp p. 67 Potatoes, 57, 59, 62 Potosí, 249 Precipitation. See Rain Profiles, composition of slopes and profiles (diagr.), 191 Pucamoco, 78 Pucapacures, 42 Puerto Mainique, 29, 30 Punas, 6, 197 Puquiura, 67, 87, 211, 216, 236, 238, 239, 243, 277; Carboniferous, 244; composition of slopes (ill.), opp. p. 198 Puqura, 250 Quebradas, 145, 155 Quechuas, 44, 45, 77, 83 Quenigo, 285 Quilca, 105, 117, 226, 266 Quillabamba, opp. p. 74 Quillagua, 260 Railroads, 74, 75, 76, 93, 101-102, 149; Bolivia, 93; Cuzco to Santa Ana, 69-70 Raimondi, 77, 78, 109, 110, 135, 155, 170, 316 Rain, 115, 119, 120, 122, 124-125; coast region seasonal variation, 131-137; eastern border of Andes, belts (diagrs.), 148; effect of heavy, 138-140; effect of sea-breeze, 131-132; heaviest, 147-148; Morococha (with diagrs.), 173-176; periodic variations, 137; Santa Lucia (with diagrs.), 164-166; unequal distribution in western Peru, 145-147 Regional diagrams, 50; index map, 23; note on, 51 Regions of Peru, 1, 7 Reiss, 205, 208 Revolutions, geographic basis, 88-109 Rhone glacier, 205 Rice, 76 Robledo, L. M., 9, 30, opp. p. 78 Rock belts, outline sketch along 73d meridian, 235 Rocks, Maritime Cordillera, pampas and Coast Range structural relations (sketch section), 254; Maritime Cordillera, western border (geologic section), 257; Moquegua, structural relations (diagr.), 255; Urubamba Valley, succession (diagr.), 249 Rosalina, 8, 9, 10, 11, 37, 42, 71, 73, 80, 82, 153, 237 Rubber, 18; price, 32, 33 Rubber forests, 22-35 Rubber gatherers, Italian, 18, 81 Rubber plant (ill.), opp. p. 75 Rubber trees, 152 Rueda, José, 78 Rug weaver (ill.), opp. p. 68 Rumbold, W. R., 321 Russell, I. C., 205 Ruwenzori, 206, 274 Sacramento, Pampa del, 37 Sahuayaco, 77, 78, 80, 83, 179; forests (ills.), opp. p. 90; temperature curve (diagr.), 178 Salamanca, 54, 56, 105, 106, 180, 181; forest, 285; temperature curve (diagr.), 180; terraced hill slopes (ill.), opp. p. 58; view (ill.), opp. p. 107 Salaverry, 119 Salcantay, 64, 72, opp. p. 3 (ill.) San Geronimo, 276 Sand. See Dunes “Sandy matico” (ill.), opp. p. 90 San Gabriel, Hacienda, 316 Santa Ana, 69, 72, 78, 79, 80, 82, 93, 153, 179, 237; clouds (ill.), opp. p. 180; temperature curve (diagr.), 178 Santa Ana Valley, 10, 82 Santa Lucia, temperature ranges (diagrs.), insert opp. p. 162; unusual weather conditions, 169-170; weather data (with diagrs.), 161-171 Santo Anato, 40, 42, 82, 179; temperature curve (diagr.), 178 Schists and Silurian slates, 236-241 Schrund. See Bergschrunds Schrundline, 300-305 Schuchert, Chas., 321 Sea and land. See Land and sea Sea-breeze, 129-132 Shepherd, highland, 4 Shepherds, country of, 46-67 Shirineiri, 36, 38 Sierra Nevada, 305 Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, 205 Sievers, W., 143, 176, 205, 263 Sihuas, Pampa de, 114, 198 Sillilica, Cordillera, 190, 260 Sillilica Pass, 275 Silurian fossils, 321 Silurian slates, 236-241 Sintulini rapids, 19 Sirialo, 8, 15 Slave raiders, 14 Slavery, 24, 25 Slopes, composition at Puquiura (ill.), opp. p. 198; composition of slopes and profiles (diagr.), 191; smooth grassy (ill.), opp. p. 79; see also Mature slopes Smallpox, 14, 38 Snow, 212; drifting, 278; fields on summit of Cordillera Vilcapampa (ill.), opp. p. 268 Snow erosion. See Nivation Snow motion, curve of (diagr.), 293; law of variation, 291 Snowline, 52, 53, 66, 122, 148, 203, 205-206, 274-285; canting (with diagr.), 279; determination, 282; difference in degree of canting (diagr.), 281; glacial period, 282; view of canted, Cordillera Vilcapampa (ill.), opp. p. 280 Snowstorm, 170 Soiroccocha, 64, 72, 214; view (ill.), opp. p. 154 Solimana, 4, 202, 317; glaciation, 307 Soray, 64 Sotospampa, 243 South Pacific Ocean, 125 Spanish Conquest, 62, 63, 77 Spruce (botanist), 153 Steinmann, 249, 276 Streams, Coast Range, 145-147; physiography, 192; see also Water Structure. See Rocks Stübel, 209 Sucre, 93 Sugar, 73, 74, 75, 76, 82-83, 92 Sullana, 119 Survey methods employed in topographic sheets, 315 Tablazo de Ica, 198 Tarai. See Urubamba Valley Tarapacá, Desert of, 260 Tarapoto, 153 Taurisma, 317; geologic sketch map and cross-section, 248 Taylor, Capt. A., 126, 128 Temperature, Abancay curve (diagr.), opp. p. 180; Callao (with diagr.), 126-129; Cochabamba, 176-178; Cochabamba (diagrs. of ranges), insert opp. p. 178; curves at various points along 73d meridian, 178-181; La Joya curves (diagr.), 134; Mollendo curves (diagr.), 134; Morococha, 171-173; Morococha (diagrs. of ranges), insert opp. p. 172; progressive lowering of saturation, in a desert (diagr.), 127; Santa Lucia, 161-164; Santa Lucia (diagrs. of ranges), insert opp. p. 162 Tempests, 169-170 Terraces, coastal, 225-232; physical history and physiographic development (with diagrs.), 228-230; profile at Mollendo (diagr.), 227 Terraces, hill slopes (ill.), opp. p. 58 Terraces, marine (ill.), opp. p. 226 Terraces, valley (ills.), opp. p. 56, opp. p. 57, opp. p. 66; Huaynacotas (ill.), opp. p. 199 Terral, 130 Tertiary deposits, 249, 251-267; coastal, 253 Ticumpinea, 36, 38, 251 Tierra blanca, 254, 266 Timber line, 69, 71, 79, 148 Timpia, 36, 38, 252; canoe at mouth (ill.), opp. p. 19 Titicaca, 161, 176, 195, 321 Titicaca basin, 107 Titicaca-Poopó basin, 251 Tocate. See Abra Tocate Tola bush (ill.), opp. p. 6 Tono, 36 Topographic and climatic cross-section (diagr.), opp. p. 144 Topographic and structural section of northeastern border of Andes (diagr.), 241 Topographic map of the Andes between Abancay and the Pacific Coast at Camaná, insert opp. p. 312 Topographic profiles across typical valleys (diagrs.), 189 Topographic regions, 121-122; map, 123 Topographic sheets, survey method employed, 315; list of, with page references, xi Topographical outfit, 315 Torontoy, 10, 70, 71, 72, 82, 158, 220 Torontoy Canyon, 272, opp. p. 3 (ill.); cliff (ill.), opp. p. 10 Trail (mountain-side) (ill.), opp. p. 78 Transportation, 73-74, 93, 152; rains and, 142 Trees, 150; see also Forests Tucapelle (ship), 117 Tucker, H. L., ix Tumbez, 119 Tunari peaks, 276 Ucayali, 42, 44 Uplift, recent, 190 Upper Carboniferous fossils, 322 Urubamba, 1, 41, 42, 62, 187; village, 70, 73 Urubamba River, 72; fossils, 322; physiographic observations, 252-253; rapids and canyons, 8-21; shelter hut (ill.), opp. p. 11 Urubamba Valley, 72, 153, 238; alluvial fans, 270; alluvial fill, 272-273; below Paltaybamba (ill.), opp. p. 74; canyon walls (ill.), opp. p. 218; dissected alluvial fans (sketch), 271; floor from Tarai (ill.), opp. p. 70; from ice to sugar cane (ill.), opp. p. 3; geologic sketch map of the lower, 237; line of unconformity of geologic structure (ill.), opp. p. 250; rocks, 250; rocks, succession (diagr.), 249; sketch map, 9; slopes and alluvial deposits between Ollantaytambo and Torontoy (ill.), opp. p. 269; temperature curves (diagrs.), 178-179; terraced valley slopes and floor (ill.), opp. p. 66; vegetation, distribution (ill.), opp. p. 79; view below Santa Ana (ill.), opp. p. 155; wheat and bread, 71 Valdivia, Señor, 161 Vallenar, 49 Valley climates in canyoned region (diagr.), 59 Valley planters. See Planters Valley profiles, abnormal, 305-313 Valleys, eastern; see Border valleys of the Eastern Andes; see also Dry valleys, Inter-Andean valleys; topographic profiles across, typical in Southern Peru (diagrs.), 189 Vegetation, 141; belts (map), 123; distribution in Urubamba Valley (ill.), opp. p. 79; shrubbery, mixed with grass (ill.), opp. p. 154; Tocate pass (ill.), opp. p. 19; see also Forests Vicuña, 54 Vilcabamba, 66; rounded slopes (ill.), opp. p. 72 Vilcabamba pueblo, 211, 277, 296 Vilcabamba Valley, 189 Vilcanota knot, 276 Vilcanota Valley, alluvial fill, 272 Vilcapampa, Cordillera, 15, 16, 22, 51, 53, 64, 66, 67, 197, 204-224, 233; batholith and topographic effects, 215-224; canted snowline (ill.), opp. p. 280; climatic barrier, 73; composite geologic section (diagr.), 215; glacial features, 204-214; glaciers, 304; highest pass, crossing (ill.), opp. p. 7; regional diagram, 65; regional diagram of the eastern aspect, 68; schrundline, 302; snow movement, 287-289; snow fields on summit (ill.), opp. p. 268; snow peaks (ill.), opp. p. 72; snowline, 277, 279; southwestern aspect (ill.), opp. p. 205; summit view (ill.), opp. p. 205 Vilcapampa Province, 77 Vilcapampa Valley, bowldery fill, 269 Vilque, 176 Violle, 309 Virazon, 130 Vitor, Pampa de, 114, 318 Vitor River, 92, 117, 226, 266, 267 Volcanic country, 199 Volcanic flows, geologic sketch, 244 Volcanoes, glacial erosion, 311; post-glacial, 306-307; recessed southern slopes (ill.), opp. p. 287; snowline, 281; typical form, 310; views (ills.), opp. p. 204 Von Boeck, 176 Vulcanism, 199; see also Volcanoes Ward, R. De C., 126, 143 Water, 59, 60, 116, 139; projected canal from Atlantic to Pacific slope of the Maritime Cordillera (diagr.), 118; streams of coastal desert, intermittent and perennial, diagrams of depth, 119 Water skippers, 17 Watkins, Mr., 317, 318 Weather. See Meteorological records Western Andes, 199-203 Whymper, 205 Wind belts, 122; map, 123 Wind roses, Callao (diagrs.), 128; Caraveli (diagrs.), 136; Iquique (diagrs.), 131; La Joya (diagrs.), 135; Machu Picchu (diagrs.), 159; Mollendo (diagrs.), 129; Santa Lucia (diagrs.), 167; summer and winter of 1911-1913 (diagrs.), 130 Winds, 114, 116; directions at Machu Picchu, 158-159; geologic action, 262-267; prevailing, 125; Santa Lucia (with diagrs.), 166-168; trade, 122, 124; sea-breeze, 129-132 Wine, 116, 117 Wolf, 205 Yanahuara pass, 170 Yanatili, 41, 42, 44; slopes at junction with Urubamba River (ill.), opp. p. 79 Yareta (ill.), opp. p. 6 Yavero, 30, 31, 36, 38, 42, 179; temperature curve (diagr.), 178 Yavero (Paucartambo) River, rubber station (ill.), opp. p. 24 Yuca, growing (ill.), opp. p. 75 Yunguyo, 176 Yuyato, 36, 38

FOOTNOTES: