IV. THE TEACHING OF THE DRAMA

If a teacher were to attempt to investigate the methods employed in classes formed to study Shakespeare, he would doubtless be impressed first by their variety. One teacher lays great stress on reading the play with little or no comment; another, with painful slowness, works line by line to bring out the details of the thought; while a third lays the greatest stress on the structure of the play, following minutely the steps from exposition to climax and from climax to conclusion. Each plan has its advantages, and in the hands of an enthusiastic and sensible teacher ought to achieve admirable results.

The fundamental reason for these wide differences in method is the greatness of Shakespeare's genius. We are captivated, perhaps, by one phase of his work and fail to see, or to see in due proportion, other phases equally, or even more, important. As a rule, the limitations of time make it impossible thoroughly to investigate many lines of study, and the teacher naturally follows his own taste in making selections.

Now the average high school student has limitations which we are bound to recognize. Accustomed as he is to reading fiction where description and explanation are frequently used to aid the imagination and the understanding, he fails to appreciate the situations in a drama and the motives for the actions. Again, there are considerable difficulties of language which must be overcome by persistent work. The over-editing of some of our text-books is often a real difficulty. A conscientious pupil often feels that his lesson is not quite learned unless he has carefully read all the notes. In one school edition of a play there are nearly twice as many pages of introduction and unclassified notes as of the text. Such an edition adds to the difficulties of the work by confusing essential and unessential matters.

It is evident that there is in the study of the drama unusual necessity for a plan, flexible enough for the varying needs of classes, but definite enough to keep classes from discouraging confusion of details. Just what the plan shall be for any particular class the teacher must decide from the condition and acquirements of the class, the limitations of time, and the object in view.

Few will deny that Julius Cæsar can be read with profit in the first year. It will be read, however, at that time, chiefly for the interest of the plot, the dramatic situations, and the contrasts of character. The study of meter will be slight, and of language and grammar only enough for an understanding of the thought; while the study of structure, textual changes, development of Shakespeare's art, date of publication, etc., will be left out entirely. On the other hand, the needs of a fourth year class would require a considerably different treatment of this same play. It may seem trite to say that the wisest plan is that which keeps the pupil interested in reading and re-reading the text. The more he reads the more he understands, and the more he understands the more he delights to read. This lies at the bottom of all the plans for Shakespeare reading.

Almost any student will read through a play with interest and enthusiasm, if he understands enough to keep the thread of the story. If much textual study is required with the first reading, the interest is weakened; but if the delight of a first reading leads to a second, a study of the text brings new delight, especially if the study is directed to the interpretation of the thought.

After the second reading, the study of the play as a whole, of the development of characters, of the structure and style, and of the various problems of human interest, should send the pupil to the play again and again to find evidence to support his opinions. This study, together with memory work, will help to give that familiarity with the play which is one of the tests of satisfactory Shakespeare study.

The following is suggested merely as one plan suitable for high school classes:

I. Preparation

The presentation of a few matters to arouse interest and to anticipate some of the difficulties of a first reading.

II. First Reading

The aim of the first reading is to familiarize the pupil with the main facts of the play. General questions may be asked to guide the student, or directions given to note the progress of each scene in the development of the play. He should not be hindered, however, from as rapid a reading as he can make intelligently.

III. Second Reading

This careful reading will have for its purpose the interpretation of the author's thought. Other matters, however interesting to a Shakespearean scholar, should, for the most part, be avoided. In this thorough study many of the matters treated under the next topic will naturally come up for discussion.

IV. Study of the Play as a Whole

Here it will be possible to sum up the work already done and to correlate it with new work in some such order as the following:

A.

Content

Setting

Plot

Characters

B.

Form

Meter

Style

C.

The Life and Character of the Author

Outline for the Study of The Merchant of Venice

I. Preparation

This will probably be one of the first plays that the class will attempt. Hence there will be little or nothing to say about the drama, Shakespeare, or the development of his art. A short account of the theater in Shakespeare's day may be made interesting. Pictures of Venice, with an account of its wealth and magnificence in the sixteenth century; some facts about the condition of the Jew in England in Shakespeare's time; and a statement of the strange ideas concerning interest may prevent difficulties in the first reading.

II. First Reading

A good plan is to assign an act for a lesson; to use as much of the hour as necessary to test the class on what they have read; to have some passages read aloud; and to discuss the purpose of the act and its relation to the rest of the play.

III. Second Reading

This should be slow enough to give time for study and explanation of the difficulties of language, and for the study of important passages as they throw light on plot and character.

IV. Study of the Play as a Whole

Setting.—When and where are the events supposed to have taken place?

What, in the dress of the people and the customs of the time, shows that Shakespeare had England in mind?

How long a time is probably covered from the beginning to the end of the play? Where do the scenes follow one another without loss of time and where do they not?

Plot.—What are the two main stories in this play? What three minor stories are also part of the play?

How has Shakespeare made it seem probable that Antonio would ask a loan of an enemy like Shylock? that so strange a bond should be offered? that a sensible man like Antonio should sign it? that all his ships should be wrecked within three months? that the court should really consider taking the life of a noble citizen on such a pretext? and that a quibble like the failure to mention a drop of blood should be admitted?

Are there other improbabilities in the plot? If so, how has Shakespeare treated them? Is there any hint in the first act that the bond will be forfeited? Give the suggestions that prepare us for Antonio's plight in Act III. (I, 3, 47-48, 155-160; II, 8, 25-32, etc.)

Was it reasoning from the inscriptions, or was it simply chance, or was it the characters of the suitors, that led them to choose as they did? Discuss the questions.

Draw five parallel columns and place at the head the names of the five stories and episodes that are woven together in this play. Take each scene in turn and write under its proper head the main idea to show the progress of each story and its interrelation with the others.

The Bond Story Antonio, Bassanio, Shylock The Casket Story Portia, Bassanio The Launcelot-Gobbo Episode Launcelot, Shylock, Jessica The Lorenzo-Jessica Story Lorenzo, Shylock, Jessica The Rings Episode Portia, Nerissa, Bassanio, Gratiano

Act I, sc. 1Bassanio tells Antonio of his love for Portia

sc. 2 Conditions under which Portia may wed are related

sc. 3 To help Bassanio, Antonio binds himself to Shylock

Act II, sc. 1 Morocco chooses and fails

sc. 2 Launcelot leaves Shylock for Bassanio

sc. 3 Jessica shows her intention to marry Lorenzo

How is the plot introduced? or what is the exposition? (The Merchant of Venice, p. 148.)

As there are two main stories, so there are two climaxes. What are they? Which of these we regard as the climax of the play will depend on which story we consider the more important in the development of the plot.

How does the Launcelot-Gobbo episode help to bring out the character of Bassanio? of Shylock? Do you think it serves any other purpose?

How does the Lorenzo-Jessica story help to weave together the two main stories? to arouse us against Shylock? to make us sympathize with him? Does it serve to bring out any other characters?

How does the rings episode aid in interweaving the two main plots? in developing main characters?

Why did not Shakespeare end the play with Act IV?

What is the purpose of Act V?

Characters.—In making Shylock the cruel man that the story requires, Shakespeare was in danger of making him too inhuman to be of interest to an audience. Show in detail how he avoided this danger.

What kind of master was Shylock? What kind of father? What good traits had he?

By what traits do you distinguish Salanio, Salarino, and Salerio, or do you think that they lack individuality? Do Gratiano and Lorenzo have distinctive traits?

What evidence have we that Jessica was an attractive girl? What were her surroundings, her companions, her employments, so far as we can judge? What effect would such conditions naturally have upon a girl?

Compare Shylock with Isaac of York; Jessica with Rebecca.

How was Antonio regarded by Bassanio and his friends? by Shylock? by the Duke? What traits of character does he show in what he says and does?

What anxiety have we reason to believe Antonio had for Bassanio? What hints do we get of Bassanio's previous actions and employments? What idea do we get of Bassanio's ideals from his words and acts? What impression of his character do we get from the devotion of Portia and Antonio to him?

What successive impressions do we get of Portia from what Bassanio says of her in I, 1? from her conversation with Nerissa in I, 2? from her manner and language toward the unsuccessful suitors? from her bearing toward Bassanio? from her planning to relieve Antonio and the successful carrying out of her plans? and lastly from her part in the ring episode?

Form.—What is the meter of the play? Name several variations from the normal line, in number of syllables, position of the accented syllables, and in the position of the pauses.

Find several passages that are worth memorizing because of their thought (for example, III, 2, 73-107), others like V, 1, 54-65, because of poetic fancy.

Distinguish between tragedy and comedy and tell how this play should be classified. How is this play like Shakespeare's latest plays, the Romances? (See Merchant of Venice, p. 14.)

The Life and Character of the Author.—What few facts about Shakespeare's life have been established beyond doubt? What others have we good reason to infer?

Give a brief account of the theater as Shakespeare knew it.

Into what four periods may we divide Shakespeare's work? (See Dowden's A Primer of Shakespeare, or Stopford Brooke's Primer of English Literature.)

Under which period does The Merchant of Venice fall?

Outline for the Study of As You Like It

I. Preparation

As You Like It differs greatly from The Merchant of Venice and Macbeth in its appeal to the mind. To the lover of literature it is one of the most delightful of all Shakespeare's plays; but its interest is primarily æsthetic, not intellectual. For this reason it is extremely difficult to devise any satisfactory plan of study. The enthusiastic teacher will find ways of imparting enthusiasm to his pupils, but he cannot tell how he does it.

If this is not the first of Shakespeare's plays for the class to study, a review of what they have previously learned about the author and his work will make a good beginning; otherwise the best introduction is the reading of the play.

II. First Reading

As You Like It is one of the plays that best repays oral reading, therefore the finest passages, at least, should be read aloud. But the chief purpose of the first reading is to get a clear idea of the development of the story. To this end the student should understand the purpose of each act and the relation of the scenes to one another.

III. Second Reading and Study

Attention should now be given to the explanation of unusual words and constructions, to the interpretation of important passages, to the study of plot and character, and to memorizing the best passages.

IV. Study of the Play as a Whole

Setting and Situation.—What sort of place is the Forest of Arden? Does it seem attractive? Why? Describe the life that the natives lead.

Contrast the life of the Duke, Rosalind, Celia, and their friends in the forest with the life at court.

What chances had Shakespeare had to observe the different kinds of life portrayed here?

Plot.—Show the steps of the plot from its beginning in I, 2 to its climax in III, 2, and from the climax to the conclusion.

Compare this play with The Merchant of Venice in respect to tragic features and to simplicity.

Why are the minor love stories introduced?

Characters.—Contrast Orlando and Oliver as they are first presented.

What is there to give us a good impression of Orlando before he does anything to earn it? Show how our good opinion of him is strengthened by his actions in I, 2; II, 6; IV, 3, etc.

What first prejudices us in favor of Rosalind? How does the author use Celia to make us like Rosalind the more? What characteristics are brought out to give us further admiration for Rosalind in II, 4; III, 2; III, 4; IV, 3; V, 2, etc.?

What is the chief characteristic of Jacques that distinguishes him from his companions? How is his view of life made to add to our appreciation of the life in the forest? Note how many of the fine passages of the play Shakespeare has put in the mouth of Jacques. Why do you suppose he did this?

Contrast the two dukes. Are they conventional characters, or do they have distinct personalities? Compare Touchstone with Wamba in Ivanhoe.

Form.—What is the normal meter?

Show how Shakespeare varies the normal line by changing the number of the syllables; the relative position of the accented and the unaccented syllables; and the position of the pauses.

What characters always speak in prose? There is no accepted theory to account for Shakespeare's use of prose, but can you see any difference in the importance of the thought or in the depth of feeling between scenes altogether in prose and those altogether in verse?

The Life and Character of the Author.—See outline for the study of The Merchant of Venice, p. 72.

Outline for the Study of Julius Cæsar

I. Preparation

Little is required to arouse the interest of any class in the play of Julius Cæsar. A brief account of the salient facts of Roman history that center about Cæsar's life, and an interesting account of the man himself will help the student to an appreciative study.

II. Reading and Study

The purpose of the first and second readings will be the same as that stated in the previous two outlines.

III. Study of the Play as a Whole

Setting.—When does the play open? What two events of history has Shakespeare combined in Act I? Why?

How many days are required for the action of the play?

Show where the scenes follow one another without loss of time, and where they do not.

How are the descriptions of nature used to make the action more effective? Compare Shakespeare's use of storm and prodigy in this play with that in Macbeth.

Plot.—Where did Shakespeare get his material for this play? How has he modified it? Select two or three important modifications and show why he made them. In this story of the rise and fall of the conspiracy show by what successive steps it reaches the highest point in the first scene of Act III. At this point is our feeling one of sympathy with the conspirators or of opposition to them? Why? Where does the fall begin?

Trace the successive steps of the fall to the end in the last scene of Act V.

Does our feeling toward the conspirators change? Why? Compare the opening scene of this play with the corresponding ones in The Merchant of Venice, and Macbeth. Which seems to you the most interesting and the best, regarded as an introduction?

What gave rise to the quarrel in Act IV?

What are the steps in the reconciliation?

For what purpose is Cæsar's ghost introduced in Act IV? What other instances of the use of the supernatural are there in this play? What purpose do they serve?

Should this play have been called Marcus Brutus? Why?

Characters.—What gave Brutus the great influence that he enjoyed? Could he think clearly and reason logically? Could he clearly discern facts in the life about him? Was he a man of sympathetic nature, or was he cold and unfeeling? Give proof in detail for each answer. What was his mistake? Is there any evidence that he regretted the part that he took? Do you think it was possible for him to be thoroughly honorable and yet not regret this part? What is the lesson of his life?

What acts and words of Cæsar, with statements made about him, tend to belittle him in our eyes? What do Brutus and Antony say of Cæsar when they are alone, speaking freely and without disguise? What words or acts of Cæsar mentioned in the play are expressive of true nobility?

Why did Shakespeare present in one play two impressions of Cæsar very different from each other? Are both correct, or only one, or neither? Give evidence.

Was Cassius a patriot or a self-seeking politician? Give evidence. How could he justify the means that he used to win Brutus? In what respect did he surpass Brutus? What case did he make against Cæsar? How far was he right? What weakness and what strength does he show in Act IV?

How does Antony appear before the death of Cæsar? (Note what he does and says and what others say of him.) What change comes over him after Cæsar's death? Is his agreement with Brutus in regard to Cæsar's funeral an honorable one? Give reasons.

How does he dare to speak so frankly and boldly in the presence of the conspirators as he does in III, 1, 184-210? Does he conduct himself throughout the rest of the play as a true patriot? Give evidence. What were his virtues? Wherein was he weak?

What characteristics of Portia do you discover in II, 1, 261-278, 291-302; IV, 3, 152-156? Compare her with Calpurnia as she appears in II, 2.

What are the characteristics of the Commoners? Compare them with a modern crowd such as might gather to see a parade or a celebration.

Form.—What is the meter of this play? Where do we frequently find an additional syllable? Illustrate.

What other variations from the normal line help to keep the verse from becoming monotonous?

Explain the metrical difficulties of the following lines:

"'Speak, strike, redress.' Am I entreated" (II, 1, 55).

"Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears" (III, 2, 78).

"As a sick girl. Ye gods! it doth amaze me"(I, 2, 128).

Why do you think we have both prose and verse in I, 1?

Why prose in Brutus's speech and verse in Antony's?

Find, if you can, passages that express true patriotism (like II, 1, 52-58), others that express hollow rhetoric (like I, 3, 91-100), and others that express true and beautiful sentiment.

The Life and Character of the Author.—See outline for the study of The Merchant of Venice, p. 72.

Outline for the Study of Macbeth

I. Preparation

A review of the facts about Shakespeare's work and the development of his art previously studied; a short explanation of the meaning and purpose of tragedy; and an account of the general belief in witchcraft in the early seventeenth century, will help to give the class the right attitude toward the play.

II. Reading and Study

The purpose of the first and second readings is the same as that already stated in the general plan and in the outline for the study of The Merchant of Venice. The large number of puzzling passages in Macbeth makes the second reading unusually important.

III. Study of the Play as a Whole

Setting.—Where and between whom were the battles fought in the beginning of the play?

Where are Inverness and Scone?

About how long a time is involved in the entire play? Which scenes follow one another without loss of time, and which do not?

From the various hints given, what impression do you get of the conditions of life in Scotland at the time of the play? (I, 2, 20-24; I, 4, 37-38; III, 2, 22-26.)

How is external nature used to heighten the effect made by the witches?

In what other instances is nature used to heighten the effect? (I, 5; II, 1, etc.)

Plot.—What is the purpose of the introductory scene? Compare it with the opening scene in each of the other plays that you have studied.

At what point is the introduction of the plot, or the "exposition," complete?

What evidence is there that Macbeth had planned before the opening of the play for the murder of Duncan? (I, 3, 51-52; I, 7, 47-53.)

What three incidents help to his success? (I, 4, 42-43; II, 3, 112-113; II, 4, 25-26.)

By what means does Shakespeare make the murder of Duncan very effective in moving the audience, even though the actual deed is committed off the stage?

What facts necessary for the reader to know are brought out in the last scene of Act II?

What leads Macbeth to the murder of Banquo? (III, 1, 48-72.)

Where does Macduff first come in as a force in the action? (III, 4, 128-129.)

What hints of his part have we had before? (II, 4, 36-38.)

What double purpose had the author in having Macduff's family slain?

To what extent does Lady Macbeth influence action of the play? The weird sisters? Macduff? Banquo? Macbeth?

Note the steps by which Macbeth rose in fame.

What was the source of Shakespeare's material? Account for the most important changes that he made.

Characters.—What sort of man have we reason to believe Macbeth was at the opening of the play from the position that he held; from what his wife said of him; from what others said of him; and from his attitude in the face of his first crime?

What two contrasts are drawn between Macbeth and Duncan in scenes 2 and 4 of Act I? Is it strange that Macbeth had often wished that he might be king in place of Duncan? Why? Show how the prophecies of the witches became his temptations. From his soliloquies in Act I, scenes 3 and 4, what do you judge of his moral sense? What decision has he reached, if any, before he returns to his wife? In his soliloquy in Act I, scene 7, what two considerations are keeping him from the murder? What argument of Lady Macbeth was effective in bringing him to a decision? How do you account for the fact that he is extremely vacillating in Act I and fearful in the first part of Act II, while in the battle with the rebels he was the personification of bravery and decision? What is his state of mind as soon as the act is committed? What change takes place as soon as it is discovered? Is his fear of Banquo a reasonable one? What effect of his crime is apparent in Act III, scene 2? What, if any, further decline do you note in Act III, scene 4? In Act V how does Shakespeare contrive to represent Macbeth in a condition of brutality and yet to arouse a decided human interest in him, and even some sympathy for him? In Macbeth's several soliloquies throughout the play what mental characteristic is most prominent? Give examples. To what extent may Macbeth be taken as a type of ambition? to what extent the type of a noble soul led downward to destruction? What great truth does his life illustrate, a truth that we may call the central idea of the play?

What mental qualities does Lady Macbeth show in Act I, scene 5? Why does she not discuss with herself the pros and cons of the act to be committed? What fundamental difference does this illustrate between herself and her husband? Do you think Lady Macbeth's motive for the murder of Duncan was selfish or unselfish? Give reasons. What sort of woman do you suppose she was before the play opens? Why? What light does Act III, scene 2, throw on her character? Does her calmness and tenderness with her husband after the guests have left the banquet indicate her wisdom in dealing with him, or the pathetic weakening of her strong character, or a natural tenderness? Give reasons. What makes the sleep-walking scene so pathetic? How has the dramatist prepared us for her breakdown? What, if anything, do you find in her to admire?

Are we to regard Banquo as strong and noble, or blamelessly weak, or criminally negligent? Why? Compare Banquo and Macduff in order to bring out the chief characteristics of each.

What striking contrast is drawn between Macbeth and Edward the Confessor?

Form.—Illustrate the normal line and the chief variations from it in Macbeth.

How does the number of incomplete lines compare with the number in the other plays that you have studied?

Find several highly imaginative passages (like II, 1, 49-60); several that express pathos (like V, 1, 22-86); several that are very condensed (like III, 2, 13-22). Which of these passages are most characteristic of this play?

Outline for the Study of Comus

I. Preparation

A good way to arouse interest in this poem is to give an account of the popularity of the mask in the days of Elizabeth and James I; the occasions for which masks were written; the people who wrote them; and the preparations that were made for presenting them. Some pupil who has read Kenilworth will be interested to tell of the entertainment of Queen Elizabeth by the Earl of Leicester. Other matters of interest are the character of Henry Lawes, his part in Comus, and the occasion for which this mask was prepared.

II. Reading and Study

The first reading should give familiarity with the events related and a general idea of the philosophical discussions. The second reading will include a careful study of details; Milton's use of mythology; the stage setting; the introduction of dances, etc.

III. Study of the Poem as a Whole

Content.—When, where, for what occasion, and before what audience was this mask presented?

Who were the actors?

Members of the audience often took part in dances, which were a feature of the mask. Do you find here any indication of such a dance? Find two places in Comus where dances are introduced to serve the purpose of an anti-mask, that is, a humorous interlude to afford contrast and amusement.

What supernatural characters are introduced?

Find passages of compliment to the Welsh, to the Earl of Bridgewater, and to the Earl's family in the opening speech of the Attendant Spirit.

Find one passage complimenting the musical ability of Mr. Henry Lawes (494-496), and several complimenting the Lady Alice and her two brothers (145-150, 244-264, 297-304, 366, etc.).

What idea does Milton bring out in the long dialogue between the two brothers? between Comus and the Lady?

For what do the several characters stand, if we take the poem as an allegory? What is the significance of the ugly heads of the monsters? of the glass of liquor? of the remarkable courage of the Lady in the face of danger? What is the central idea of the poem?

Form.—Distinguish between the mask and the regular drama; between the mask and the opera.

Point out the chief lyrical passages.

Find examples of blank verse, of rhymed pentameter, and of the two kinds of verse so common in L'Allegro and Il Penseroso.

Compare the meter of the dialogues with that of the lyric passages.

Find passages remarkable for beauty of figurative language (like 188-192 and 375-380), others for beauty of sentiment (like 210-220 and 453-463).

The Life and Character of the Author.—See outline for the study of Lycidas, page 59.

What impression of Milton's character do we get from Comus? What suggestions do we get here of the best side of Puritanism?