Chapter XXIX

MR. MALTHUS'S OPINIONS ON RENT.

Although the nature of rent has in the former pages of this work been treated on at some length; yet I consider myself bound to notice some opinions on the subject, which appear to me erroneous, and which are the more important, as they are found in the writings of one to whom, of all men of the present day, some branches of economical science are the most indebted. Of Mr. Malthus's Essay on Population, I am happy in the opportunity here afforded me of expressing my admiration. The assaults of the opponents of this great work have only served to prove its strength; and I am persuaded that its just reputation will spread with the cultivation of that science of which it is so eminent an ornament. Mr. Malthus too—has satisfactorily explained the principles of rent, and shewed that it rises or falls in proportion to the relative advantages, either of fertility or situation, of the different lands in cultivation, and has thereby thrown much light on many difficult points connected with the subject of rent, which were before either unknown, or very imperfectly understood; yet he appears to me to have fallen into some errors, which his authority makes it the more necessary, whilst his characteristic candour renders it less unpleasing to notice. One of these errors lies in supposing rent to be a clear gain and a new creation of riches.

I do not assent to all the opinions of Mr. Buchanan concerning rent; but with those expressed in the following passage, quoted from his work by Mr. Malthus, I fully agree; and therefore I must dissent from Mr. Malthus's comment on them.

"In this view it (rent) can form no general addition to the stock of the community, as the neat surplus in question is nothing more than a revenue transferred from one class to another; and from the mere circumstance of its thus changing hands, it is clear that no fund can arise, out of which to pay taxes. The revenue which pays for the produce of the land, exists already in the hands of those who purchase that produce; and, if the price of subsistence were lower, it would still remain in their hands, where it would be just as available for taxation as when, by a higher price, it is transferred to the landed proprietor."

After various observations on the difference between raw produce and manufactured commodities, Mr. Malthus asks, "Is it possible then, with M. de Sismondi, to regard rent as the sole produce of labour, which has a value purely nominal, and the mere result of that augmentation of price which a seller obtains in consequence of a peculiar privilege; or, with Mr. Buchanan, to consider it as no addition to the national wealth, but merely transfer of value, advantageous only to the landlords, and proportionably injurious to the consumers?"50

I have already expressed my opinion on this subject in treating of rent, and have now only further to add, that rent is a creation of value, as I understand that word, but not a creation of wealth. If the price of corn, from the difficulty of producing any portion of it, should rise from 4l. to 5l. per quarter, a million of quarters will be of the value of 5,000,000l. instead of 4,000,000l., and as this corn will exchange not only for more money but for more of every other commodity, the possessors will have a greater amount of value; and as no one else will in consequence have a less, the society altogether will be possessed of greater value, and in that sense rent is a creation of value. But this value is so far nominal that it adds nothing to the wealth, that is to say, to the necessaries, conveniences, and enjoyments of the society. We should have precisely the same quantity, and no more of commodities, and the same million quarters of corn as before; but the effect of its being rated at 5l. per quarter, instead of 4l., would be to transfer a portion of the value of the corn and commodities from their former possessors to the landlords. Rent then is a creation of value, but not a creation of wealth; it adds nothing to the resources of a country, it does not enable it to maintain fleets and armies; for the country would have a greater disposable fund if its land were of a better quality, and it could employ the same capital without generating a rent.

In another part of Mr. Malthus's "inquiry" he observes, "that the immediate cause of rent is obviously the excess of price above the cost of production at which raw produce sells in the market," and in another place he says, "that the causes of the high price of raw produce may be stated to be three:—

"First, and mainly, that quality of the earth, by which it can be made to yield a greater portion of the necessaries of life than is required for the maintenance of the persons employed on the land.

"2dly. That quality peculiar to the necessaries of life of being able to create their own demand, or to raise up a number of demanders in proportion to the quantity of necessaries produced.

"And 3dly. The comparative scarcity of the most fertile land." In speaking of the high price of corn, Mr. Malthus evidently does not mean the price per quarter or per bushel, but rather the excess of price for which the whole produce will sell, above the cost of its production, including always in the term "cost of production," profits as well as wages. One hundred and fifty quarters of corn at 3l. 10s. per quarter, would yield a larger rent to the landlord than 100 quarters at 4l., provided the cost of production were in both cases the same.

High price, if the expression be used in this sense, cannot then be called a cause of rent; it cannot be said "that the immediate cause of rent is obviously the excess of price above the cost of production, at which raw produce sells in the market," for that excess is itself rent. Rent, Mr. Malthus has defined to be "that portion of the value of the whole produce which remains to the owner of the land, after all the outgoings belonging to its cultivation, of whatever kind, have been paid, including the profits of the capital employed, estimated according to the usual and ordinary rate of the profits of agricultural stock at the time being." Now whatever sum this excess may sell for, is money rent; it is what Mr. Malthus means by "the excess of price above the cost of production at which raw produce sells in the markets;" and therefore in an inquiry into the causes which may elevate the price of raw produce, compared with the cost of production, we are inquiring into the causes which may elevate rent.

In reference to the first cause of the rise of rent, Mr. Malthus has the following observations: "We still want to know why the consumption and supply are such as to make the price so greatly exceed the cost of production, and the main cause is evidently the fertility of the earth in producing the necessaries of life. Diminish this plenty, diminish the fertility of the soil, and the excess will diminish; diminish it still further, and it will disappear." True, the excess of necessaries will diminish and disappear, but that is not the question. The question is, whether the excess of their price above the cost of their production will diminish and disappear, for it is on this, that money rent depends. Is Mr. Malthus warranted in his inference, that because the excess of quantity will diminish and disappear, therefore "the cause of the high price of the necessaries of life above the cost of production is to be found in their abundance, rather than in their scarcity; and is not only essentially different from the high price occasioned by artificial monopolies, but from the high price of those peculiar products of the earth, not connected with food, which may be called natural and necessary monopolies?"

Are there no circumstances under which the fertility of the land, and the plenty of its produce may be diminished, without occasioning a diminished excess of its price above the cost of production, that is to say, a diminished rent? If there are, Mr. Malthus's proposition is much too universal; for he appears to me to state it as a general principle, true under all circumstances, that rent will rise with the increased fertility of the land, and will fall with its diminished fertility.

Mr. Malthus would undoubtedly be right, if, in proportion as the land yielded abundantly, a greater share of the whole produce were paid to the landlord; but the contrary is the fact: when no other but the most fertile land is in cultivation, the landlord has the smallest share of the whole produce, as well as the smallest value, and it is only when inferior lands are required to feed an augmenting population, that both the landlord's share of the whole produce, and the value he receives, progressively increase.

Suppose that the demand is for a million of quarters of corn, and that they are the produce of the land actually in cultivation. Now, suppose the fertility of all the land to be so diminished, that the very same lands will yield only 900,000 quarters. The demand being for a million of quarters, the price of corn would rise, and recourse must necessarily be had to land of an inferior quality sooner than if the superior land had continued to produce a million of quarters. But it is this necessity of taking inferior land into cultivation which is the cause of the rise of rent. Rent, it must be remembered, is not in proportion to the absolute fertility of the land in cultivation, but in proportion to its relative fertility. Whatever cause may drive capital to inferior land, must elevate rent; the cause of rent being, as stated by Mr. Malthus in his third proposition, "the comparative scarcity of the most fertile land." The price of corn will naturally rise with the difficulty of producing the last portions of it; but as the cost of production will not increase, as wages and profits taken together will continue always of the same value,51 it is evident that the excess of price above the cost of production, or, in other words, rent, must rise with the diminished fertility of the land, unless it is counteracted by a great reduction of capital, population, and demand. It does not appear then that Mr. Malthus's proposition is correct: rent does not immediately and necessarily rise or fall with the increased or diminished fertility of the land; but its increased fertility renders it capable of paying at some future time an augmented rent. Land possessed of very little fertility can never bear any rent; land of moderate fertility may be made, as population increases, to bear a moderate rent; and land of great fertility a high rent; but it is one thing to be able to bear a high rent, and another thing actually to pay it. Rent may be lower in a country where lands are exceedingly fertile than in a country where they yield a moderate return, it being in proportion rather to relative than absolute fertility—to the value of the produce, and not to its abundance. Mr. Malthus says, that the "cause of the excess of price of the necessaries of life above the cost of production, is to be found in their abundance rather than their scarcity, and is essentially different from the high price of those peculiar products of the earth, not connected with food, which may be called natural and necessary monopolies."

In what are they essentially different? Would not the abundance of those peculiar products of the earth cause a rise of rent, if the demand for them at the same time increased? and can rent ever rise, whatever the commodity produced may be, from abundance merely, and without an increase of demand?

The second cause of rent mentioned by Mr. Malthus, namely, "that quality peculiar to the necessaries of life, of being able to create their own demand, or to raise up a number of demanders in proportion to the quantity of necessaries produced," does not appear to me to be any way essential to it. It is not the abundance of necessaries which raises up demanders, but the abundance of demanders which raises up necessaries.

We are under no necessity of producing permanently any greater quantity of a commodity than that which is demanded. If by accident any greater quantity were produced, it would fall below its natural price, and therefore would not pay the cost of production, together with the usual and ordinary profits of stock: thus the supply would be checked till it conformed to the demand, and the market price rose to the natural price.

Mr. Malthus appears to me to be too much inclined to think that population is only increased by the previous provision of food,—"that it is food that creates its own demand,"—that it is by first providing food that encouragement is given to marriage, instead of considering that the general progress of population is affected by the increase of capital, the consequent demand for labour, and the rise of wages; and that the production of food is but the effect of that demand.

It is by giving the workman more money, or any other commodity in which wages are paid, and which has not fallen in value, that his situation is improved. The increase of population, and the increase of food will generally be the effect, but not the necessary effect of high wages. The amended condition of the labourer, in consequence of the increased value which is paid him, does not necessarily oblige him to marry and take upon himself the charge of a family—he may, if it please him, exchange his increased wages for any commodities that may contribute to his enjoyments—for chairs, tables, and hardware; or for better clothes, sugar, and tobacco. His increased wages then will be attended with no other effect than an increased demand for some of those commodities; and as the race of labourers will not be materially increased, his wages will continue permanently high. But although this might be the consequence of high wages, yet so great are the delights of domestic society, that in practice it is invariably found that an increase of population follows the amended condition of the labourer; and it is only because it does so, that a new and increased demand arises for food. This demand then is the effect of an increase of population, but not the cause—it is only because the expenditure of the people takes this direction, that the market price of necessaries exceeds the natural price, and that the quantity of food required is produced; and it is because the number of people is increased, that wages again fall.

What motive can a farmer have to produce more corn than is actually demanded, when the consequence would be a depression of its market price below its natural price, and consequently a privation to him of a portion of his profits, by reducing them below the general rate? "If," says Mr. Malthus, "the necessaries of life, the most important products of land, had not the property of creating an increase of demand proportioned to their increased quantity, such increased quantity would occasion a fall in their exchangeable value.52 However abundant might be the produce of a country, its population might remain stationary. And this abundance without a proportionate demand, and with a very high corn price of labour, which would naturally take place under these circumstances, might reduce the price of raw produce, like the price of manufactures, to the cost of production."

"Might reduce the price of raw produce to the cost of production?" Is it ever for any length of time either above or below this price? Does not Mr. Malthus himself, state it never to be so? "I hope," he says, "to be excused for dwelling a little, and presenting to the reader in various forms the doctrine, that corn, in reference to the quantity actually produced, is sold at its necessary price like manufactures, because I consider it as a truth of the highest importance, which has been overlooked by the economists, by Adam Smith, and all those writers, who have represented raw produce as selling always at a monopoly price."

"Every extensive country may thus be considered as possessing a gradation of machines for the production of corn and raw materials, including in this gradation not only all the various qualities of poor land, of which every territory has generally an abundance, but the inferior machinery which may be said to be employed when good land is further and further forced for additional produce. As the price of raw produce continues to rise, these inferior machines are successively called into action; and as the price of raw produce continues to fall, they are successively thrown out of action. The illustration here used serves to shew at once the necessity of the actual price of corn to the actual produce, and the different effect which would attend a great reduction in the price of any particular manufacture, and a great reduction in the price of raw produce."53

How are these passages to be reconciled to that which affirms, that if the necessaries of life had not the property of creating an increase of demand proportioned to their increased quantity, the abundant quantity produced would then, and then only, reduce the price of raw produce to the cost of production? If corn is never under its natural price, it is never more abundant than the actual population require it to be for their own consumption; no store can be laid up for the consumption of others; it can never then by its cheapness and abundance be a stimulus to population. In proportion as corn can be produced cheaply, the increased wages of the labourers will have more power to maintain families. In America, population increases rapidly, because food can be produced at a cheap price, and not because an abundant supply has been previously provided. In Europe population increases comparatively slowly, because food cannot be produced at a cheap value. In the usual and ordinary course of things, the demand for all commodities precedes their supply. By saying, that corn would, like manufactures, sink to its price of production, if it could not raise up demanders, Mr. Malthus cannot mean that all rent would be absorbed; for he has himself justly remarked, that if all rent were given up by the landlords, corn would not fall in price; rent being the effect, and not the cause of high price, and there being always one quality of land in cultivation which pays no rent whatever, the corn from which replaces by its price, only wages and profits.

In the following passage, Mr. Malthus has given an able exposition of the causes of the rise in the price of raw produce in rich and progressive countries, in every word of which I concur; but it appears to me to be at variance with some of the propositions maintained by him in some parts of his Essay on Rent. "I have no hesitation in stating, that, independently of the irregularities in the currency of a country, and other temporary and accidental circumstances, the cause of the high comparative money price of corn is its high comparative real price, or the greater quantity of capital and labour which must be employed to produce it; and that the reasons why the real price of corn is higher, and continually rising in countries which are already rich, and still advancing in prosperity and population, is to be found in the necessity of resorting constantly to poorer land, to machines which require a greater expenditure to work them, and which consequently occasion each fresh addition to the raw produce of the country to be purchased at a greater cost; in short, it is to be found in the important truth, that corn in a progressive country, is sold at the price necessary to yield the actual supply; and that, as this supply becomes more and more difficult, the price rises in proportion."

The real price of a commodity is here properly stated to depend on the greater or less quantity of labour and capital (that is, accumulated labour) which must be employed to produce it. Real price does not, as some have contended, depend on money value; nor, as others have said, on value relatively to corn, labour, or any other commodity taken singly, or to all commodities collectively; but, as Mr. Malthus justly says, "on the greater (or less) quantity of capital and labour which must be employed to produce it."

Among the causes of the rise of rent, Mr. Malthus mentions, "such an increase of population as will lower the wages of labour." But if, as the wages of labour fall, the profits of stock rise, and they be together always of the same value,54 no fall of wages can raise rent, for it will neither diminish the portion, nor the value of the portion of the produce which will be allotted to the farmer and labourer together, and therefore will not leave a larger portion, nor a larger value for the landlord. In proportion as less is appropriated for wages, more will be appropriated for profits, and vice versa. This division will be settled by the farmer and his labourers, without any interference of the landlord; and indeed it is a matter in which he can have no interest, otherwise than as one division may be more favourable than another, to new accumulations, and to a further demand for land. If wages fall, profits, and not rent, would rise. If wages rose, profits, and not rent, would fall. The rise of rent and wages, and the fall of profits, are generally the inevitable effects of the same cause—the increasing demand for food, the increased quantity of labour required to produce it, and its consequently high price. If the landlord were to forego his whole rent, the labourers would not be in the least benefited. If the labourers were to give up their whole wages, the landlords would derive no advantage from such a circumstance; but in both cases the farmer would receive and retain all which they relinquished. It has been my endeavour to shew in this work, that a fall of wages would have no other effect than to raise profits.

Another cause of the rise of rent, according to Mr. Malthus, is "such agricultural improvements, or such increase of exertions, as will diminish the number of labourers necessary to produce a given effect." This would not raise the value of the whole produce, and would therefore not increase rent. It would rather have a contrary tendency, it would lower rent; for if in consequence of these improvements, the actual quantity of food required could be furnished either with fewer hands, or with a less quantity of land, the price of raw produce would fall, and capital would be withdrawn from the land.55 Nothing can raise rent, but a demand for new land of an inferior quality, or some cause which shall occasion an alteration in the relative fertility of the land already under cultivation.567 Improvements in agriculture, and in the division of labour, are common to all land; they increase the absolute quantity of raw produce obtained from each, but probably do not much disturb the relative proportions which before existed between them.

Mr. Malthus has justly commented on an error of Adam Smith, and says, "the substance of his (Dr. Smith's) argument is, that corn is of so peculiar a nature, that its real price cannot be raised by an increase of its money price; and that, as it is clearly an increase of real price alone, which can encourage its production, the rise of money price, occasioned by a bounty, can have no such effect."

He continues: "It is by no means intended to deny the powerful influence of the price of corn upon the price of labour, on an average of a considerable number of years; but that this influence is not such as to prevent the movement of capital to, or from the land, which is the precise point in question, will be made sufficiently evident by a short inquiry into the manner in which labour is paid, and brought into the market, and by a consideration of the consequences to which the assumption of Adam Smith's proposition would inevitably lead."57

Mr. Malthus then proceeds to shew, that demand and high price will as effectually encourage the production of raw produce, as the demand and high price of any other commodity will encourage its production. In this view it will be seen, from what I have said of the effects of bounties, that I entirely concur. I have noticed the passage Mr. Malthus's "Observations on the Corn Laws," for the purpose of shewing in what a different sense the term real price is used here, and in his other pamphlet, entitled "Grounds of an Opinion, &c." In this passage Mr. Malthus tells us, that "it is clearly an increase of real price alone which can encourage the production of corn," and by real price he evidently means the increase in its value relatively to all other things, or in other words, the rise in its market above its natural price, or the cost of its production. If by real price this is what is meant, Mr. Malthus's opinion is undoubtedly correct; it is the rise in the market price of corn which alone encourages its production, for it may be laid down as a principle uniformly true, that the only encouragement to the increased production of a commodity, is its market value exceeding its natural or necessary value.

But this is not the meaning which Mr. Malthus, on other occasions, attaches to the term, real price. In the Essay on Rent, Mr. Malthus says, by "the real growing price of corn, I mean the real quantity of labour and capital, which has been employed to produce the last additions which have been made to the national produce." In another part he states "the cause of the high comparative real price of corn to be the greater quantity of capital and labour, which must be employed to produce it."58 Suppose that in the foregoing passage we were to substitute this definition of real price, would it not then run thus?—"It is clearly the increase in the quantity of labour and capital which must be employed to produce corn, which alone can encourage its production." This would be to say, that it is clearly the rise in the natural or necessary price of corn, which encourages its production—a proposition which could not be maintained. It is not the price at which corn can be produced, that has any influence on the quantity produced, but the price at which it can be sold. It is in proportion to the degree of the excess of its price above the cost of production, that capital is attracted to or repelled from the land. If that excess be such as to give to capital so employed, a greater than the general profit of stock, capital will go to the land; if less, it will be withdrawn from it.

It is not then by an alteration in the real price of corn that its production is encouraged, but by an alteration in its market price. It is not "because a greater quantity of capital and labour must be employed to produce it," Mr. Malthus's just definition of real price, that more capital and labour are attracted to the land, but because the market price rises above this its real price, and, notwithstanding the increased charge, makes the cultivation of land the more profitable employment of capital.

Nothing can be more just than the following observations of Mr. Malthus, on Adam Smith's standard of value. "Adam Smith was evidently led into this train of argument, from his habit of considering labour as the standard measure of value, and corn as the measure of labour. But that corn is a very inaccurate measure of labour, the history of our own country will amply demonstrate; where labour, compared with corn, will be found to have experienced very great and striking variations, not only from year to year, but from century to century; and for ten, twenty, and thirty years together. And that neither labour nor any other commodity can be an accurate measure of real value in exchange, is now considered as one of the most incontrovertible doctrines of political economy; and, indeed, follows from the very definition of value in exchange."

If neither corn nor labour are accurate measures of real value in exchange, which they clearly are not, what other commodity is?—certainly none. If then the expression real price of commodities, have any meaning, it must be that which Mr. Malthus has stated, in the Essay on Rent—it must be measured by the proportionate quantity of capital and labour necessary to produce them.

In Mr. Malthus's "Inquiry into the Nature of Rent," he says, "that, independently of irregularities in the currency of a country, and other temporary and accidental circumstances, the cause of the high comparative money price of corn, is its high comparative real price, or the greater quantity of capital and labour which must be employed to produce it.59

This, I apprehend, is the correct account of all permanent variations in price, whether of corn or of any other commodity. A commodity can only permanently rise in price, either because a greater quantity of capital and labour must be employed to produce it, or because money has fallen in value; and on the contrary, it can only fall in price, either because a less quantity of capital and labour may be employed to produce it, or because money has risen in value.

A variation arising from the latter of either of these alternatives, an altered value of money, is common at once to all commodities; but a variation arising from the former cause, is confined to the particular commodity requiring more or less labour in its production. By allowing the free importation of corn, or by improvements in agriculture, raw produce would fall; but the price of no other commodity would be affected, except in proportion to the fall in the real value, or cost of production, of the raw produce which entered into its composition.

Mr. Malthus, having acknowledged this principle, cannot, I think, consistently maintain that the whole money value of all the commodities in the country must sink exactly in proportion to the fall in the price of corn. If the corn consumed in the country were of the value of ten millions per annum, and the manufactured and foreign commodities consumed were of the value of twenty millions, making altogether thirty millions, it would not be admissible to infer that the annual expenditure was reduced to 15 millions, because corn had fallen 50 per cent., or from 10 to 5 millions.

The value of the raw produce which entered into the composition of these manufactures might not, for example, exceed 20 per cent. of their whole value, and, therefore, the fall in the value of manufactured commodities, instead of being from 20 to 10 millions, would be only from 20 to 18 millions; and after the fall in the price of corn of 50 per cent., the whole amount of the annual expenditure, instead of falling from 30 to 25 millions, would fall from 30 to 23 millions.60

Instead of thus considering the effect of a fall in the value of raw produce; as Mr. Malthus was bound to do by his previous admission; he considers it as precisely the same thing with a rise of 100 per cent. in the value of money, and, therefore, argues as if all commodities would sink to half their former price.

"During the twenty years, beginning with 1794," he says, "and ending with 1813, the average price of British corn per quarter was about eighty-three shillings; during the ten years ending with 1813, ninety-two shillings; and during the last five years of the twenty, one hundred and eight shillings. In the course of these twenty years, the Government borrowed near five hundred millions of real capital; for which, on a rough average, exclusive of the sinking fund, it engaged to pay about five per cent. But if corn should fall to fifty shillings a quarter, and other commodities in proportion, instead of an interest of about five per cent., the Government would really pay an interest of seven, eight, nine, and, for the last two hundred millions, ten per cent.

"To this extraordinary generosity towards the stockholders, I should be disposed to make no kind of objection, if it were not necessary to consider by whom it is to be paid; and a moment's reflection will shew us, that it can only be paid by the industrious classes of society, and the landlords, that is, by all those whose nominal income will vary with the variations in the measure of value. The nominal revenues of this part of the society, compared with the average of the last five years, will be diminished one half, and out of this nominally reduced income, they will have to pay the same nominal amount of taxes."61

In the first place, I think, I have already shewn, that the nominal income of the whole country will not be diminished in the proportion for which Mr. Malthus here contends; it would not follow, that because corn fell fifty per cent., each man's income would be reduced fifty per cent. in value.62

In the second place, I think the reader will agree with me, that the increased charge, if admitted, would not fall exclusively "on the landlords and the industrious classes of society:" the stockholder, by his expenditure, contributes his share to the support of the public burdens in the same way as the other classes of society. If then money became really more valuable, although he would receive a greater value, he would also pay a greater value in taxes, and, therefore, it cannot be true that the whole addition to the real value of the interest would be paid by "the landlords and the industrious classes."

The whole argument, however, of Mr. Malthus, is built on an infirm basis: it supposes, because the gross income of the country is diminished, that, therefore, the net income must also be diminished, in the same proportion. It has been one of the objects of this work to shew, that with every fall in the real value of necessaries, the wages of labour would fall, and that the profits of stock would rise—in other words, that of any given annual value a less portion would be paid to the labouring class, and a larger portion to those whose funds employed this class. Suppose the value of the commodities produced in a particular manufacture to be 1000l., and to be divided between the master and his labourers, in the proportion of 800l. to labourers, and 200l. to the master; if the value of these commodities should fall to 900l., and 100l. be saved from the wages of labour, in consequence of the fall of necessaries, the net income of the masters would be in no degree impaired, and, therefore, he could with just as much facility pay the same amount of taxes, after, as before the reduction of price.63

And that wages would fall as much as the mass of commodities, or rather that the net income remaining to landlords, farmers, manufacturers, traders, and stockholders, the only real payers of taxes, would be as great as before, is very highly probable; for nothing would be even nominally lost to the society by the freest importation of corn, but that portion of rent of which the landlords would be deprived in consequence of the fall of raw produce.

The difference between the value of corn and all other commodities sold in the country, before and after the importation of cheap corn, would be only equal to the fall of rent; because, independently of rent, the same quantity of labour would always produce the same value.

The whole reduction which is made in wages, is a value actually added to the value of the net income before possessed by the society; whilst the only value which is taken from that net income is the value of that part of their rent of which the landlords will be deprived by a fall of raw produce. When we consider that the fall of produce acts upon a limited number of landlords, while it reduces the wages not only of those who are employed in agriculture, but of all those who are occupied in manufactures and commerce, it may well be doubted, whether the net revenue of the society would suffer any abatement whatever.64

But, if it did, it must not be supposed that the ability to pay taxes will diminish in the same degree, as the money value, even of the net revenue. Suppose that my net revenue were diminished from 1000l. to 900l.; but that my taxes continued to be the same, to be 100l.: is it not probable that my ability to pay this 100l. may be greater with the smaller than with the larger revenue? Commodities cannot fall so universally as Mr. Malthus supposes, without greatly benefiting the consumers, without enabling them with a much smaller money revenue to command more of the conveniences, necessaries, and luxuries of human life; and the question resolves itself into this—whether those who are in possession of the net revenue of the country will be benefited as much by the diminished price of commodities, as they will suffer by the greater real taxation. On which side the balance may preponderate, will depend on the proportion which taxes bear to the annual revenue; if it be enormously large, it may undoubtedly more than counterbalance the advantages from cheap necessaries; but I trust enough has been said, to shew, that Mr. Malthus has very greatly over-rated the loss to the tax-payers, from a fall in one of the most important necessaries of life; and that if they were not entirely remunerated for the real increase of taxes, by the fall of wages and increase of profits, they would be more than compensated, by the cheaper price of all objects on which their incomes were expended.

That the stockholder is benefited by a great fall in the value of corn, cannot be doubted; but if no one else be injured, that is no reason why corn should be made dear: for the gains of the stockholder are national gains, and increase, as all other gains do, the real wealth and power of the country. If they are unjustly benefited, let the degree in which they are so, be accurately ascertained, and then it is for the legislature to devise a remedy; but no policy can be more unwise than to shut ourselves out from the great advantages arising from cheap corn, and abundant productions, merely because the stockholder would have an undue proportion of the increase.

To regulate the dividends on stock by the money value of corn, has never yet been attempted. If justice and good faith required such a regulation, a great debt is due to the old stockholders; for they have been receiving the same money dividends for more than a century, although corn has, perhaps, been doubled or trebled in price.65

Mr. Malthus says, "It is true, that the last additions to the agricultural produce of an improving country are not attended with a large proportion of rent; and it is precisely this circumstance that may make it answer to a rich country to import some of its corn, if it can be secure of obtaining an equable supply. But in all cases the importation of foreign corn must fail to answer nationally, if it is not so much cheaper than the corn that can be grown at home, as to equal both the profits and the rent of the grain which it displaces." Grounds, &c. p. 36.

As rent is the effect of the high price of corn, the loss of rent is the effect of a low price. Foreign corn never enters into competition with such home corn as affords a rent; the fall of price invariably affects the landlord till the whole of his rent is absorbed;—if it fall still more, the price will not afford even the common profits of stock; capital will then quit the land for some other employment, and the corn, which was before grown upon it, will then, and not till then, be imported. From the loss of rent, there will be a loss of value, of estimated money value, but there will be a gain of wealth. The amount of the raw produce and other productions together will be increased, from the greater facility with which they are produced; they will, though augmented in quantity, be diminished in value.

Two men employ equal capitals—one in agriculture, the other in manufactures. That in agriculture produces a net annual value of 1200l. of which 1000l. is retained for profit, and 200l. is paid for rent; the other in manufactures produces only an annual value of 1000l. Suppose that by importation, the same quantity of corn can be obtained for commodities which cost 950l., and that, in consequence, the capital employed in agriculture is diverted to manufactures, where it can produce a value of 1000l. the net revenue of the country will be of less value, it will be reduced from 2200l. to 2000l., but there will not only be the same quantity of commodities and corn for its own consumption, but also as much addition to that quantity as 50l. would purchase, the difference between the value at which its manufactures were sold to the foreign country, and the value of the corn which was purchased from it.

Mr. Malthus says, "It has been justly observed by Adam Smith, that no equal quantity of productive labour employed in manufactures can ever occasion so great a reproduction as in agriculture." If Adam Smith speaks of value, he is correct, but if he speaks of riches, which is the important point, he is mistaken, for he has himself defined riches to consist of the necessaries, conveniences, and enjoyments of human life. One set of necessaries and conveniences admits of no comparison with another set; value in use cannot be measured by any known standard, it is differently estimated by different persons.

THE END.

ERRATA.

Page 190, line 8, for obtained, read attained.

521, line 20, for twenty-one shillings, read forty-two shillings.

543, last line, for give, read spend.

555, last line, for rent money, read money rent.

INDEX.

A.

ACCUMULATION of capital, effects of, on the relative value of commodities, 16-42. And on profits and interest, 398-416.

Agriculture, effects of improvements in, on rents, 70-76. Is affected by the distress proceeding from sudden revulsions of trade, 368-372. Agricultural improvements, no cause of the increase of rent, 570, 571.

B.

Banks, establishment of, affects the sole power of the state in coining money, 502. Consequence of the Bank of England issuing too great a quantity of paper, 503-506. The assistance given by the Bank of England to commerce, accounted for, 513, 514. --See Paper Currency. Bounties, on the exportation of corn, lower its price to the foreign consumer, 417-427. Effects of a bounty in raising the price of corn, illustrated, 428. Though such bounty may cause a partial degradation in the value of money, yet such degradation cannot be permanent, 432-434. Bounties on the exportation of manufactures raise their market but not their natural price, 436-438. The sole effect of bounty is to divert a portion of capital to an employment which it would not naturally seek, 438. Evils of such a system, 439-445. A bounty on the production of corn, will produce no real effect on the annual produce of the land and labour of the country, though it would make corn relatively cheap, and manufactures relatively dear, 449-455. But the effect of a tax on corn, in order to afford a fund for a bounty on the production of commodities, would be to enhance the price of corn, and render commodities cheap, 456, 457. Buchanan (Mr.), observations of, on Adam Smith's doctrine of productive and unproductive labour, 64-66, note. Remarks on his opinions respecting bounties on exportation, 440-442.

C.

Capital, nature of, effects of the accumulation of, on the relative value of commodities investigated, 16. Effects of, in a savage or infant state of society, 17, 18, 23, 24. And in a more advanced state of society, 19-21. The relative values of circulating and fixed capitals considered, 22, 23. The distinction between circulating and fixed capitals difficult to be strictly defined, 186, 187. Considerations on the different modes of employing it, 83-88. The increase of capital in quantity and value, productive of a rise in the natural price of wages, 94, 95. Increase of capital in quantity only, productive of a rise in the market price of wages, ibid. Effects of the accumulation of capital on profits and interest, 398-416. The sole effect of bounties on exportation, upon capital, is to divert a portion of it to an employment which it would not naturally seek, 438. Remarks on such effect, 439-445. The profits, made by the employment of capital, regulate the rate of interest for money, 512, 513.

Carrying trade, observations on, 407.

Circulation of money can never overflow, and why, 500, 501. Circulation of Paper, see Paper Currency.

Colonial Trade, observations on, 476, 477. Proofs, that trade with a colony may be so regulated as to be less beneficial to the colony, and more beneficial to the mother country, than a perfectly free trade, 477-486. Benefits of a colonial trade, 487-490.

Commodities, gold and silver an insufficient medium for determining the varying value of, 7, 8. Corn, an inadequate standard of the value of, 9-12. The effects of an accumulation of capital on the relative value of commodities, considered, 16-42. Effects of a rise in wages on their value, 43, 44, and of the payment of rent, 45, 46. Their exchangeable value regulated by the greater quantity of labour bestowed on their production by those who labour under the most unfavourable circumstances, 59, 60. The prices of commodities not necessarily increased by a rise in the price of labour, 109, 110. The cost of production regulates the price of commodities, 542, 567, 568, 572, 573.

Corn, a variable standard for determining the varying value of things, 7-12. Effects of the price of, on rent, 67-70. Corn-rents materially affected by tithes, 227. Advantage resulting from the relatively low price of corn, 373. Bounties on the exportation of it, lower its price to the foreign consumer, 417-427. Effects of a bounty in raising the price of corn, 428. A bounty on the production of, productive of no real effect on the annual produce of the land and labour of the country, 449-455. The price of corn enhanced by a tax on it, in order to afford a fund for a bounty on the production of commodities, 456, 457. Benefit of a high price of corn to landlords, 474, 475. Investigation of the comparative value of corn, gold, and labour, in rich and in poor countries, 527-537. The production of corn encouraged by alteration in its market price, 574, 575. A fall in the value of corn beneficial to the stockholder, 586.

Cultivation, not discouraged by a tax on land and its produce, 238.

Currency. See Gold and Silver, Paper Currency.

D.

Demand and supply, influence of, on prices, considered, 542. Opinion of M. Say on this subject, 544. And of the Earl of Lauderdale, 545-547. Observations thereon, 547, 548.

E.

Economy in labour, reduces the relative value of commodities, 21. Illustration of this principle, 22-42.

Exchange, no criterion of the increased value of money, 178. To be ascertained by estimating the value of the currency in the currency of another country, 181, and also by comparing it with some standard common to both countries, 181-184. Effects of paper currency on exchange, 310-314.

Exportation of corn, bounties on, lower its price to the foreign consumer, 417-427. Effects of, in raising the price of corn, illustrated, 428. Bounties on the exportation of manufactures raise the market, but not the natural, price of these, 436-438.

F.

Farmers pay more poor-rate than the manufacturers, 359-362.

Foreign Trade, effects of an extension of, 146, 147. Proofs that the profits of the favoured trade will speedily subside to the general level, 148-154.

Funded Property, the price of, no steady criterion by which to judge of the rate of interest, 413-415.

G.

Gold, and Silver, an insufficient medium for determining the variable value of commodities, 7, 8. But, upon the whole, the least inconvenient standard for money, 80, 81. On whom a tax upon gold would ultimately fall, 249, 250. The value of gold ultimately regulated by the comparative facility or difficulty of producing it, 251. Effects of a tax upon gold, 252-261. Evils of prohibiting a free trade in the precious metals, when the prices of commodities are raised, 309. The value of gold and silver proportioned to the quantity of labour necessary to produce them and bring them to market, 499. Remarks on the employment of these metals in currency, 516. Their relative values at different periods, accounted for, 516-526. Investigation of the comparative value of gold, corn, and labour, in rich and in poor countries, 527-537.

Gross Revenue, advantages of, over-rated by Adam Smith, 491. And by M. Say, 492, note. Examination of this doctrine, 492-498. A diminution of gross income, no diminution of net income, 579-583.

H.

Holland, low rate of interest in, accounted for, 400, note.

Houses, rents of, distinguished into two parts, 263. Difference between rent of houses and that of land, 264. Taxes on houses by whom ultimately borne, 266.

I.

Importation of corn, effects of a prohibition of, considered, 437, 438.

Interest, low rate of, in Holland, accounted for, 400, note. Effects of accumulation on profits and interest, 398-410. Observations on the rates of interest, 412-416. The interest for money is regulated by the rate of profits which can be made by the employment of capital, 512, 513.

L.

Labour, the quantity of, requisite to obtain commodities, the principal source of their exchangeable value, 4, 5. Effects of machinery on, considered, 9-11. Economy in labour reduces the relative value of a commodity, 21, 22. Illustrations of this principle, 22-42. Adam Smith's theory of productive and unproductive labour, considered, 64-66, notes. Natural price of, explained, 90, 91. Market price of, what, 92. Its influence on the happiness of the labourer, 92, 93. Investigation of the comparative value of labour, gold, and corn, in rich and in poor countries, 527-537.

Land, the division of the whole produce of, between landlords, capitalists, and labourers, is the criterion of rent, profits, and wages, 44-48. Its different productive qualities, a cause of rent, 54-58. Effects of increasing its productive powers by agricultural improvements, 70-76.

Landlords, tithes injurious to, 229, 230. Benefit of a high price of corn to them, 474, 475.

Land-Tax, virtually a tax on rent, 232. Effects of an equal land-tax, imposed indiscriminately on all land cultivated, 234, 235. Error of Dr. Adam Smith, on the inequality of land and all other taxes, accounted for, 236-238. Tax on land and its produce, no bar to cultivation, 238, 239. Operation of the land-tax of Great Britain, considered, 239, 240. Mistake of M. Say, corrected, 241, 242-246.

Lauderdale (Earl of), opinion of, on the influence of demand and supply on prices, 545-547. Remarks thereon, 547, 548.

Luxuries, observations on the taxing of, 314. Advantages and disadvantages of taxing them, considered, 327-329.

M.

Machinery, effects of, in fixing the relative values of commodities, 34-41.

Malthus (Mr.), examination of the opinions of, on rent, 549-566. The real cost of production regulates the price of commodities, 567, 568, 572, 573. Increase of population no cause of the rise of rent, 569; nor agricultural improvements, 570, 571. His supposition, that net income is diminished, in proportion to a diminution of gross income, disproved, 579-583. Loss of rent, the effect of a low price of corn, 587, 588.

Manufactures, improvement of, in any country, tends to alter the distribution of the precious metals among the nations of the world, 157-170. Manufacturers pay less poor rate than farmers, 359-362. The market price of manufactures, but not their natural price, raised by bounties on their exportation, 436-438.

Mines, distinguished by their fertility or barrenness, 77-79. Effect of discovering the rich mines of America on the price of the precious metals, 80. Observations on the rent of mines, 462-467.

Money, effects of the rise of, in value, on the price of commodities, 43, 44. The rate of profit not affected by variations in the value of money, 46-48. Different value of money in different countries, accounted for, 170-173. The value of money, generally, diminished by improvements in the facility of working the mines of the precious metals, 178. The demand for, regulated by its value, and its value by its quantity, 250, 251. Low value of, in Spain, prejudicial to the commerce and manufactures of that country, 307. Observations on the rates of interest for money, 412-416, 512, 513. The value of, though partially degraded by a bounty on corn, yet not permanently degraded, 432-434. The quantity of, employed in a country, dependant upon its value, 500. Effects of the state charging a seignorage on coining money, 501, 524, 525.

Monopoly-price, observations on, 340-345.

N.

National Debt, observations on, 340.

Net Revenue, advantages of, unduly estimated by Adam Smith, 491, and by M. Say, 492, note. Examination of their doctrines, 492-498. Is not diminished by a proportionate diminution of gross revenue, 579-583.

P.

Paper Currency, circulation of, explained, 501. Paper-money not necessarily payable in specie, to secure its value, 502. But the quantity issued must be regulated according to the value of the standard metal, ibid. 503. The Bank of England, why liable to be drained of specie for its paper currency, 504-506. Compelling the issuers of paper money to pay their notes either in gold coin or bullion, is the only control upon their abusing their power of issuing such money, 507. Provided there were perfect security against such abuse, it is immaterial by whom paper money is issued, 509. Illustration of this point, 510-516.

Poor-Laws, pernicious tendency of, as they now exist, 111, 112, 115. Remedies for, 113, 114.

Poor-Rates, nature of, 355. How levied, 356-358. More falls on the farmer than on the manufacturer, in proportion to their respective profits, 359-362.

Population, increase of, no cause of the rise of rent, 569.

Price (real), of things, distinguished, 4. Natural and market prices distinguished, and how governed, 82-89. The prices of commodities not necessarily raised by a rise in the price of labour, 109, 110. Rise of price on raw produce, the only means by which the cultivator can pay the tax imposed thereon, 195. The market, but not the natural price of manufactures, raised by bounties on their exportation, 436-438. The influence of demand and supply on prices, considered, 542-548, 567, 568, 572, 573. Alteration in the market price of corn encourages its production, 574, 575.

Produce of land, and labour of the country, must be divided between capitalists, landlords, and labourers, to afford a criterion of rent, profits, and wages, 44-48. Effect of taxes on raw produce, 194. Tax on raw produce raises the price of wages, 199. Objections against taxing the produce of land, considered, 201-224. Remarks on the inconveniences supposed to result from the payment of taxes by the producer, 538-541.

Production, difficulty of, benefits the landlord, 76. The cost of production, the regulator of the price of commodities, 542, 567, 568, 572, 573.

Profits of stock difficult to ascertain, 410. The quantity of labour necessary to obtain the produce of land, is the criterion by which to estimate the rate of profit, wages, and rent, 44-48. A rise in the price of corn, productive of a diminution in the money value of the farmer's profits, 117-122. A rise in the price of raw produce, if accompanied by a rise of wages, lowers the agricultural and manufacturing profits, 125-130. Proofs, that profits depend on the quantity of labour requisite to provide necessaries for labourers, on that land, or with that capital which yields no rent, 131-144. Effects of an extension of foreign trade on profits, 146, 147. Proofs, that the profits of the favoured trade will speedily subside to the general level, 148-154. And so with respect to home trade, 155-157. Further proofs that profits depend on real wages, 173-175. Tax on necessaries virtually a tax on profits, 269, 270. Effects of a taxation of profits, considered, 270-284. The profits of stock diminished by a tax on wages, 285. Effects of accumulation on profits and interest, 398-416.

Prohibition of importation of corn, effects of, considered, 437, 438.

Provisions, causes of the high prices of, 203. First, a deficient supply, ibid.—204. Secondly, a gradually increasing demand, ultimately attended with an increased cost of production, 205. Thirdly, a fall in the value of money, 209. Fourthly, a tax on necessaries, 210.

R.

Rent, nature of, 49, 50, 52, 362, note. Adam Smith's doctrine of rents, considered, 50, 51. The different productive qualities of land and increase of population, the cause of rents, 54-58. Rise of, the effect of the increasing wealth of a country, 65, 66. Influence of the prices of corn on rent, 67-69. Effects of agricultural improvements on rent, 70-76. Observations on the rent of mines, 77-81. Tax on rent falls wholly on the landlords, 220-224. Corn-rents materially affected by tithes, 227. Examination of Dr. Adam Smith's doctrine concerning the rent of land, 458-475. And of Mr. Malthus's opinions on rent, 549-566. Increase of population is no cause of the rise of rent, 569. Neither are agricultural improvements, 570, 571. Loss of rent, the effect of low price of corn, 587, 588.

Riches, defined, 377. Difference between value and riches, 377-386. Means of increasing the riches of a country, 386-388. Erroneous views of M. Say on this subject considered, 388-397.

S.

Say (M.), erroneous views of, concerning the principles of the land-tax in Great Britain, corrected, 241-244. Examination of some of his principles of taxation, 319-324, 330, 331, notes. Remarks on his mistaken view of value and riches, 388-397. Examination of his doctrine concerning bounties on exportation, 443-448. And on gross and net revenue, 492-498. Danger resulting from his recommendation respecting the charging of seignorage for coining money, 525, 526, notes. Observations on his statement of the inconveniences resulting from payment of taxes by the producer, 538-540. His opinion on the influence of demand and supply on prices, considered, 544, 545.

Scarcity, a source of exchangeable value, 2.

Seignorage, effects of, on the value of money, 501, 524, 525.

Simonde (M.), remarks on the opinion of, concerning the inconveniences resulting from the payment of taxes by the producer, 540, 541.

Silver. See Gold and Silver.

Sinking fund, in England, merely nominal, 340. How conducted, 510.

Smith (Dr. Adam), on the meaning of the term value, 1. His doctrine that corn is a proper medium for fixing the varying value of other things, examined, 7-9. Strictures on his doctrine relative to labour being the sole ultimate standard of the exchangeable value of commodities, 10, 11, 575, 576. And on his definitions of rent, 49, 50. His theory of productive and unproductive labour considered, 64-66, notes. Correction of his erroneous view of the inequality of taxes on land, and all other taxes, 236-238. His opinion on the taxes upon the wages of labour, 286. Examination thereof by Mr. Buchanan, 287-292. Observations thereon by the author of this work, 293-306. Correction of his mistaken view of taxes upon luxuries, 314-319. Remarks on his doctrine concerning bounties on exportation, 420, 422-439. Examination of his doctrine concerning the rent of land, 458-475. And on gross and net revenue, 492-498. Strictures on his principles of paper-currency, 503-508. His statement respecting the advantages of the Scottish mode of affording accommodation to trade, disproved, 515, 516-523. Remarks on his doctrine relative to the comparative value of gold, corn, and labour, in rich and in poor countries, 529-537.

Spain, commerce and manufactures of, injured by the low value of money there, 307.

Stamp-duty, weight of, a bar to the transfer of landed property, 267, 268.

T.

Taxes, nature of, explained, 186. Impolicy of taxes on capital, 190. Taxes upon the transfer of property, 191. On whom the several kinds of taxes principally fall, 192. Objections to taxes on the transference of property, 192, 193. Effect of taxes on raw produce, 194. A rise of price in raw produce the only means by which the cultivator can pay the tax, 195. Such tax in fact paid by the consumer, 196-198. Tax on raw produce and on the necessaries of the labourer, raises the price of wages, 199. Objections against the taxation of the produce of land, considered and refuted, 201-224. Tithes, an equal tax, 225. Difference between them and a tax on raw produce, 226. Objections to them, 227-231. Tax on land, virtually a tax on rent, 232. They ought to be clear and certain, 233, 234. Effects of taxes on gold, considered, 247-261. Ground rents, not a fair subject of taxation, 267. Taxes on houses by whom ultimately borne, 266. Taxes on necessaries, virtually a tax on profits, 269, 270. Effects of taxation of profits considered, 270-284. Taxes upon luxuries, 314. Advantages and disadvantages of, 327-329. Supposed absurdities in taxation, explained and obviated, 315-317. Proper objects of taxation, 326. Observations on the taxation of other commodities than raw produce, 330. Effect of taxes to defray the interest of loans, 332-334. Remarks on the tax upon malt, and every other tax on raw produce, 346-353. Nature and operation of the poor-rate, 355-362. Examination of the inconveniences supposed to be sustained by the payment of taxes by the producer, 538-541.

Tithes, nature of, 225. Are an equal tax, ibid. Difference between tithes and a tax on raw produce, 226. Tithes materially affect corn-rents, 227. They act as a bounty on importation, and therefore are injurious to landlords, 229, 230. Do not discourage cultivation, 237, 238.

Trade, general causes of sudden changes in the channels of, 363-365. More particularly the commencement of war after a long peace, or vice versa, 365-368. The effects of such revulsions on agriculture, considered, 369-376. Observations on the carrying trade, 407. See Foreign Trade.

U.

Utility, essential to exchangeable value, 2.

V.

Value, definition of, 1. The distinctive properties of value and riches considered, 377-397. See Labour. Utility essential to exchangeable value, 2. Scarcity, one source of such value, ibid. The quantity of labour required to obtain commodities, the principal source of their exchangeable value, 3-15. The effects of accumulation of capital on relative value, 16-42. Effects of a rise in wages, on relative value, 43, 44. Effects of payment of rent, on value, 45, 46. Variations in the value of money make no difference in the rate of profits, 46, 47. The value of gold and silver is in proportion to the labour necessary to produce and bring them to market, 499, 500. Investigation of the comparative value of gold, corn, and labour, in rich and in poor countries, 527-537.

W.

Wages, effects of a rise in, on relative value, 27-33, 43, 44, 48. Natural and market prices of labour, 90-93. Increase of capital in quantity and value, increases the natural price of wages, 94, 95. Increase of capital, but not in value, augments the market price of wages, ibid. Proofs that the increasing difficulty of providing an additional quantity of food with the same proportional quantity of labour, will raise wages, 97-104. A rise in wages not necessarily productive of comfort to the labourer, 105-108. A rise of wages not necessarily productive of a rise in the prices of commodities, 109, 110, 286-289. Wages will be raised by a tax on necessaries, 269-270. And by a tax on wages, 285. Effects of a tax upon wages, considered, 297-306.

Wealth, causes of the increase of, 66.

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