Part 2 — Introduction (continued 3)

Edward H. Forbush (1912) writes:

About 1880, when the supply of passenger pigeons began to fail, and the marketmen, looking about for some other game for the table of the epicure in spring and summer, called for plover, the destruction of the upland plover began in earnest. The price increased. In the spring migration the birds were met by a horde of market gunners, shot, packed in barrels and shipped to the cities. There are tales of special refrigerator cars sent out to the prairie regions, and parties of gunners regularly employed to follow the birds and ship plover and curlews by the carload to the Chicago market. These may not be based on facts, but we know that the birds came to market in great quantities.

Winter.—The upland plover spends our winter months on the pampas of Argentina and Patagonia, where unfortunately it is more sought for by market hunters than it is here. Mr. Hudson (1920) writes:

This species differs from its fellow-migrants of the same family from the north to Argentina in its wide and even distribution over all that portion of the pampas where the native coarse grasses which once covered the country have disappeared, an area comprising not less than 50,000 square miles. It begins to arrive as early as September, coming singly or in small parties of three or four; and, extraordinary as the fact may seem when we consider the long distance the bird travels, and the monotonous nature of the level country it uses as a “feeding area,” it is probable that every bird returns to the same spot year after year; for in no other way could such a distribution be maintained, and the birds appear every summer evenly sprinkled over so immense a surface.

Doctor Wetmore (1926) says:

Formerly abundant, the upland plover is now rare in the region where it spends the period of northern winter. Its winter range on the open pampa is a region so vast that it is difficult to form a proper estimate of the actual number of individuals of the species that remain. Among epicures the species has inherited in part the name and reputation of the Eskimo curlew and is sought constantly by gunners to supply that demand. The few that survive frequent remote regions on some of the large estancias where they are secure until they leave their seclusion and begin their return flight northward. The majority of those that I noted were identified by their liquid calls, heard, as is the case in Washington, as they passed at night.

He says again (1927):

In the season of 1919–20 the upland plover was reported to have increased somewhat in abundance at Rosas in the Province of Buenos Aires, a circumstance due perhaps to protection in the United States and Canada. It can hardly be expected to regain anywhere near its former abundance, however, with increasing encroachment on its winter and summer ranges. Unfortunately, in Argentina it has replaced the Eskimo curlew as a table delicacy, and is so eagerly sought by gunners that its preservation in settled regions is doubtful. Those that remain must seek the pastures of remote estancias in order to survive.

DISTRIBUTION

Range.—North and South America; accidental in Europe.

Breeding range.—The breeding range of the upland plover extends north to Alaska (Kobuk River and Gens de Large Mountains); southern Mackenzie (probably Fort Smith); Saskatchewan (Prince Albert, Quill Lake, and Crescent Lake); Manitoba (Shoal Lake and Winnipeg); Minnesota (Clarissa, St. Cloud, Minneapolis, and Lake City); Wisconsin (Kingston and Kelley Brook); Michigan (Lovells and Zion City); Ontario (probably Plover Mills, Dunnville, and Kingston); northern New York (Canton and Potsdam); southern Quebec (Hatley); and Maine (Farmington, Plymouth, Orono, and Calais). East to Maine (Calais); Massachusetts (Salem, Marthas Vineyard, and Nantucket); probably Connecticut (South Windsor); New York (Montauk Point); New Jersey (Princeton, Lawrenceville, and probably Tuckerton); Virginia (Wallops Island); and rarely South Carolina (Oakland). South to rarely South Carolina (Oakland); southern Indiana (Bicknell); Illinois (Olney and Odin); Missouri (Appleton and probably Stotesbury); Oklahoma (Copan and Fort Reno); probably Texas (Gainesville); Colorado (Barr and Denver); Utah (Kamas Prairies); and Oregon (Fort Klamath). West to Oregon (Fort Klamath); northern Idaho (Lapwai and Fort Sherman); British Columbia (Newgate and Osoyoos Lake); probably Alberta (Edmonton and Athabaska Landing); and Alaska (Mount McKinley and Kobuk River).

Winter range.—The main winter range of the species is confined to the southern part of South America, north to northern Argentina (Tucuman); and southern Brazil (Irisanga and probably Mattodentro). East to southern Brazil (probably Mattodentro); Uruguay (Concepcion, Sta. Elena, and Colonia); and eastern Argentina (Buenos Aires and Rio Negro). South to Argentina (Rio Negro). West to Argentina (Rio Negro, Mendoza, and Tucuman). A specimen was taken at San Angelo, Tex., January 1, 1883, but this must be considered as an accidental occurrence as the species at this season is usually found only in southern South America.

Spring migration.—Early dates of spring arrival are: Ecuador, Chaupicuz, March 30; Chiapas, Comitan, March 29; Florida, Indian Key, March 17, St. Marks, March 23, Deer Park, March 24, and Leon County, March 25; Alabama, Barachias, March 7, Coosada, March 22, and Sand Mountain, March 29; Georgia, Macon, March 18, and Savannah, March 23; South Carolina, Mount Pleasant, March 11, and Frogmore, March 24; North Carolina, Raleigh, March 28; Virginia, Alexandria, March 22; District of Columbia, Washington, March 21; Pennsylvania, Marietta, March 27, Plymouth, April 10, and Erie, April 11; New Jersey, Haddonfield, April 7, and Cape May, April 12; New York, Long Island, April 1, Watertown, April 6, and Amagansett, April 11; Connecticut, Jewett City, April 16, and Saybrook, April 22; Rhode Island, Newport, April 29; Massachusetts, Woods Hole, April 10, Salem, April 12, and Cape Cod, April 12; Vermont, Woodstock, April 17, Bennington, April 22, and Rutland, April 26; Maine, Pittsfield, April 14, Plymouth, April 25, and Portland, April 30; Louisiana, New Orleans, March 9, Hester, March 16, and Lobdell, March 19; Mississippi, Biloxi, March 10, and Rodney, March 27; Tennessee, Nashville, March 31; Kentucky, Guthrie, March 20; Missouri, St. Louis, March 17, Appleton City, March 19, and Kahoka, March 20; Illinois, Rockford, March 19, Lebanon, March 20, and Canton, March 27; Indiana, Bicknell, March 13, Vigo County, March 19, and Vincennes, April 1; Ohio, Oberlin, March 20, Berlin Center, March 23, and Columbus, March 29; Michigan, Ann Arbor, March 15, Plymouth, April 8, and Livonia, April 12; Ontario, Forest, April 16, London, April 17 and Preston, April 18; Iowa, Storm Lake, March 25, Wall Lake, March 30, and Hillsboro, March 31; Wisconsin, Delavan, March 24, Milford, April 10, and Stoughton, April 11; Minnesota, Lanesboro, April 8, North Star, April 9, and St. Cloud, April 16; Texas, Bonham, March 5, Mont Belvieu, March 8, Dallas, March 10, and Corpus Christi, March 13; Oklahoma, Copan, March 31; Kansas, Girard, March 16, Richmond, March 28, Topeka, April 1, and Onaga, April 7; Nebraska, Falls City, April 6, Badger, April 7 and Syracuse, April 9; South Dakota, Vermilion, April 9, Grand View, April 14, and Rapid City, April 15; North Dakota, Argusville, April 26, Larimore, April 26, and Marstonmoor, April 30; Manitoba, Aweme, April 26, Reaburn, April 30, Winnipeg, May 2, and Two Rivers, May 3; Saskatchewan, South qu’Appelle, April 16, Wiseton, April 25, and Indian Head, May 2; Colorado, Denver, April 18, and Colorado Springs, April 28; Wyoming, Lake Como, May 5; Montana, Billings, April 23, Columbia Falls, April 27, and Terry, May 10; Alberta, Flagstaff, May 2, Alliance, May 7, and Red Deer, May 11; and British Columbia, Osoyoos Lake, May 25.

Late dates of spring departure are: Argentina, Buenos Aires, April 3, Tucuman, April 5, and Baradero, April 13; Bolivia, Piedra Blanca, April 23; Brazil, Tonantino, May 7; Guatemala, Duenas, April 12; Mexico, Chiapas, Teopisca, May 7; Yucatan, Cancun Island, April 19; Vera Cruz, Lake Catemaco, May 5; Florida, Garden Key, May 2, Loggerhead Key, May 7, and Pensacola, May 9; Georgia, Savannah, April 28; Louisiana, Lobdell, May 15, and New Orleans, May 19; Mississippi, Biloxi, May 16; and Texas, Brownsville, April 15, Bonham, May 12, and Huntsville, May 18.

Fall migration.—Early dates of fall arrival are: New Mexico, Glenrio, July 25; Texas, San Angelo, July 4, and Lipscomb, July 10; Louisiana, New Orleans, July 5, and Abbeville, July 25; Alabama, Montgomery, July 28, and Barachias, August 22; Florida, Pensacola, August 9, and Arcadia, August 22; the Bahama Islands, Mariguana, August 5; the Lesser Antilles, Barbados, August 12, and Granada, August 24; Mexico, Jalisco, Chapata, August 27; Costa Rica, September 5; Panama, Gatun, September 1; Colombia, Cienaga, September 12; Ecuador, Carapungo, August 10, and Cerro Campania, September 24; Brazil, Matto Grosso, September 26; Paraguay, Puerto Pinasco, September 29, and Concepcion, October 3.

Late dates of fall departure are: Alberta, Red Deer River, September 22; Montana, Big Sandy, September 6; Wyoming, Little Medicine, August 15; Colorado, Fort Lyon, September 2; New Mexico, Glenrio, September 11; Manitoba, Treesbank, September 7, Margaret, September 18, and Aweme, September 28; North Dakota, Marstonmoor, September 15, and Westhope, September 24; South Dakota, Huron, September 2, Sioux Falls, September 6, and Forestburg, September 30; Nebraska, Dewitt, September 21, Badger, September 28, and Valentine, October 5; Kansas, near Wichita, October 3, Topeka, October 13, and Onaga, October 15; Texas, Grapevine, September 25, Gainesville, September 28, and Corpus Christi, October 2; Minnesota, Lanesboro, August 22, and St. Vincent, August 31; Iowa, Emmetsburg, October 14, Newton, October 22, and Grinnell, November 2; Michigan, Livonia, September 18, and Detroit, October 20; Ohio, Lakeside, October 13, Scio, October 17, and Waverly, October 23; Illinois, La Grange, October 5, Belvidere, October 24, and Rantoul, November 29; Missouri, Monteer, September 17, and Jasper City, September 27; Kentucky, Lexington, October 11; Louisiana, New Orleans, October 7; Maine, Pittsfield, September 22; Vermont, St. Johnsbury, September 25; Massachusetts, Harvard, September 14, Taunton, September 19, and Woods Hole, September 29; Rhode Island, Block Island, September 6; Connecticut, Hartford, September 3, and Litchfield, September 6; New York, Phelps, September 14, Montauk, September 17, Orient Point, September 23, and Floral Park, October 20; New Jersey, Absalom Light, September 15; Pennsylvania, Erie, September 22, Germantown, October 2, and Bridesburg, October 18; Virginia, Alexandria, November 5; North Carolina, Weaverville, November 10; South Carolina, Mt. Pleasant, October 28; Georgia, Savannah, September 20; Alabama, Barachias, October 26; Florida, Key West, October 3; Costa Rica, San Jose, November 15; Nicaragua, Escondido River, November 26; Panama, Culebra, October 22, and Davila, November 30 and Gatun, December 8; Guiana, Cayenne, October 27; Peru, Cosnipata, October 3; and Brazil, Allianca, November 9.

Casual records.—A specimen of the upland plover taken February 8, 1923 at Deception Island, South Shetlands, must be considered accidental, as this is far south of its normal winter range (Bennett, 1926). The species has been reported as occasional in spring in Newfoundland (Macoun) and one was obtained on Sable Island in 1868 (Gilpin). There are several records for Quebec (Montreal and Godbout) from May 7 to October. Two have been taken in Bermuda (September 20, 1874, and September 18, 1875). In Porto Rico one was obtained by Stahl between 1878 and 1881 (Gundlach); F. A. Potts reports that he saw one September 10, 1921 near Central Aguirre, collected one from a flock of 15 on September 13, 1921, near Santa Isabel, and saw still another August 26, 1926 near Fortuna. On the Pacific coast south of British Columbia, it is known from a specimen taken August 8, 1896, at Tule Lake, California, and one taken at Sulphur Springs, Arizona, August 18, 1874.

There are six records for England, Warwick, October 31, 1851, Cambridge, December 12, 1854, Bigswear, January 19, 1855, Falmouth November 13, 1865, Boulmer, November 21, 1879 and the Parret River in Somersetshire (date ?); one for Denmark Tim, November 3, 1920; one for Malta, November 17, 1865; one for Holland (Meyer); one for Germany, Hessen (Naumann); and one for Italy, Liguria, October, 1859. It also was taken near Sydney, Australia, in 1865 (Gould).

Egg dates.—New England and New York: 10 records, April 28 to June 13. Pennsylvania and New Jersey: 15 records, May 6 to June 11; 8 records, May 15 to 27. Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Dakotas, and Minnesota: 86 records, May 4 to July 1; 43 records, June 1 to 15. Ohio to Iowa and Kansas: 22 records, April 30 to June 17; 11 records, May 14 to 20.

TRYNGITES SUBRUFICOLLIS (Vieillot)

BUFF-BREASTED SANDPIPER

HABITS

My acquaintance with this species is limited to a few birds seen migrating in company with golden plover on the burnt-over prairies about Quill Lake, Saskatchewan. I have never seen it elsewhere. Like the upland plover, it is a sandpiper which has associated much with plover, frequents similar haunts, and has acquired some similar habits.

Spring.—W. H. Hudson (1922) gives a striking account of the spring migration of this species in Argentina during its former abundance, from which I quote, as follows:

Now, one autumn, when most of the emigrants to the Arctic breeding grounds had already gone, I witnessed a great migration of this very species—this beautiful sandpiper with the habits of a plover. The birds appeared in flocks of about one to two or three hundred, flying low and very swiftly due north, flock succeeding flock at intervals of about 10 or 12 minutes; and this migration continued for three days, or at all events three days from the first day I saw them, at a spot about 2 miles from my home. I was amazed at their numbers, and it was a puzzle to me then, and has been one ever since, that a species thinly distributed over the immense area of the Argentine pampas and Patagonia could keep to that one line of travel over that uniform green, sea-like country. For outside of that line not one bird of the kind could anywhere be seen; yet they kept so strictly to it that I sat each day for hours on my horse watching them pass, each flock first appearing as a faint buff-colored blur or cloud just above the southern horizon, rapidly approaching then passing me, about on a level with my horse’s head, to fade out of sight in a couple of minutes in the north; soon to be succeeded by another and yet other flocks in endless succession, each appearing at the same point as the one before, following the same line, as if a line invisible to all eyes except their own had been traced across the green world for their guidance. It gave one the idea that all the birds of this species, thinly distributed over tens of thousands of square miles of country, had formed the habit of assembling previous to migration at one starting point, from which they set out in successive flocks of a medium size in a disciplined order on that marvelous journey to their Arctic breeding grounds.

Dr. Alexander Wetmore (1926) noted migrating birds at Guamini on March 3 to 8. Prof. W. W. Cooke (1912) says that “migrants appear in the interior of Brazil and in Peru during March, but there are no spring migration data for the whole distance between Peru and Texas.” There is a heavy migration through Texas during April and then directly northward through the western part of the Mississippi Valley and the prairie Provinces of Canada to the Arctic tundra. The whole migration route in the spring seems to be very narrow. Prof. William Rowan (1927) writes:

This is a remarkable sandpiper from many viewpoints. Like the American golden plover and the Eskimo curlew it used to exist in millions and was slaughtered in uncountable numbers. To-day there are many widely traveled collectors who have never in their lives met with it. After extensive inquiries I can discover only one spot on the continent besides our point on which migrating buff-breasted sandpipers may be relied upon to turn up in any numbers. We get it in hundreds every spring, and, roughly speaking, it frequents only one field. Odd birds or moving flocks may be noted elsewhere from time to time, but on the rough pasture that forms the main body of the point this species arrives with unfailing regularity within a day or two of the 18th of May. Like the golden plover, it seems to migrate by night, for at daybreak there may be hundreds in place of the few or none at all of the previous evening.

In his notes for 1924 he writes to me:

Two birds were seen May 19 and subsequently collected. On the 21st, five were seen shortly after sunrise with black-bellied plover, the first time that I have seen this association, but a large arrival took place during the day and there were scores in the evening. On the 24th they had reached numbers such as I have never before seen and numerous photographs were taken. On the 26th they must have been on the ground in many hundreds. The whole of their area, over a mile long, was crawling with them. There is no doubt that this year they outnumbered every other wader we had on the place. Even so, they never formed large flocks, and I think we never saw more than 60 get up and fly together. They dropped very suddenly in numbers after this, as though they had all cleared off together, but a few were seen each day till the 30th, when a flock of 30 constituted our last record.

Pierce Brodkorb and Frank Grasett have recorded it in northeastern Illinois as early as April 27. A. G. Lawrence’s dates for Whitewater Lake, Manitoba, are from May 13 to 19. Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887) noted the first arrivals at St. Michael, Alaska, on May 31; and John Murdoch (1885) says that it arrived at Point Barrow June 6 to 8.

Courtship.—Professor Rowan (1927) has given us the most elaborate account of the nuptial display of the buff-breasted sandpiper, as follows:

As we have noted it annually, there are several distinct stages to the display, but the males do not appear to be concerned in the least with the females at any time. Nor have I ever seen a female take the slightest notice of any of the displays. Nelson comments on the fact that Murdoch frequently saw solitary males displaying, yet he was observing them on the actual breeding grounds.

Probably the most frequent performance is the raising of one wing only (either one), but this has various phases. A, the wing is spread and held steadily for a few moments with the primaries horizontal and is then closed again. B, the wing is spread with the primaries nearly perpendicular and waved round in an ellipse, the bird standing still. C, the wing is spread while the bird runs round in circles. D, the wing is held aloft while the owner runs after another bird, always, so far as I have seen, another male, which instantly raises one wing also and starts zigzagging through the grass, the first bird giving chase. They may thus cover many yards before one suddenly collapses his wing and halts, the second immediately following suit. All these single-wing performances seem to be carried out in silence.

Both wings together are used for another set of actions. E, the wings are raised similarly to a bird alighting on or arising from the ground, the body horizontal. In this attitude one bird sometimes chases another. F is a double version of B, both wings being raised high and waved round and round. G, both wings are spread, undersurfaces forward, primaries horizontal, after the manner of the American eagle, the body being almost perpendicular. This may be accomplished by a rapid tick tick tick many times repeated. Two birds may do it simultaneously standing opposite to each other with the tips of the wings practically touching. H is the most characteristic of all and the most amusing to watch. Both wings are raised with the undersurfaces facing to the front as in G, but with the primaries perpendicular, tips practically touching each other over the bird’s head. The body is held absolutely vertical and the legs stretched to capacity (I am not sure that the birds do not stand partially on tiptoe), tail cocked out horizontally behind, while the individual “ticks” at top speed for about a second. Each “tick” is accompanied with a rapid jerk of the whole body. The bird then relaxes momentarily, turns through an angle of 40 to 50 degrees, repeats the performance to a fresh audience (if there is one, for I have seen isolated birds doing this), relaxes to switch round again, and so on perhaps half a dozen times. This may also be done simultaneously by two birds, face to face, and standing so close that the wing tips appear to touch over their heads. It may then be repeated without any change of direction in the intervals. But it always seems to be done in spasms. Display is evidently infectious, particularly in fine weather, for no sooner does one start than a dozen may be at it in a moment. But it is curious to see a bird suddenly stop in its hunt for food in order to go through one of these acts and then proceed as though it never had anything else in mind, particularly if it is by itself. It seems so irrational. Occasional bickering occurs, but we have never seen serious fights or even suggestion of anything serious.

Murdoch (1885) has also observed that—

Two will occasionally meet and spar like fighting cocks for a few minutes and then rise together like towering birds, with legs hanging loose, for about 30 feet, then drifting off to leeward. A single bird will sometimes stretch himself up to his full height, spread his wings forward, and puff out his throat, making a sort of clucking noise, while one or two others stand by and apparently admire him.

Nesting.—Roderick MacFarlane found the buff-breasted sandpiper breeding commonly on the barren grounds east of Horton River and on the Arctic coast. I find the records of some 25 nests in his notes, but the data given are very meager. One nest was “near a small river, made of a few dead leaves”; another was “a depression in the ground, lined with a few withered grasses and leaves, on the slope of a gentle eminence”; a third, he said, was “precisely similar to that of the golden plover. The female made a short, low flight to a distance of about 12 yards, when the nest was approached within 9 or 10 feet.”

Murdoch (1885), at Point Barrow, “collected the eggs in considerable abundance”; he says that “they were never seen on the lower marshy portions of the tundra, but always confined themselves to the high and dry banks, or what we call the black tundra.” The eggs were deposited “in a shallow depression in the ground lined with a little moss,” where they harmonized very well with the black and white of the ground and moss.

Eggs.—The buff-breasted sandpiper lays four eggs; one set of five is recorded. The shapes vary from ovate pyriform to pyriform, usually decidedly pointed. The prevailing ground colors are very light, from “cartridge buff” to dull white; in some darker colored eggs they are “olive-buff,” “chamois,” or “cream buff.” They are heavily and boldly marked, chiefly at the large end, where the markings are often confluent, with longitudinal and somewhat spiral blotches and with small spots and blotches scattered over the whole egg. An occasional egg is only sparingly marked with small spots. The markings are in dark browns, “bister,” “sepia,” “liver brown” and “livid brown,” sometimes “Saccardo’s umber” or “chestnut brown.” There are usually underlying blotches and spots in various shades of “brownish drab” or “drab-gray.” The measurements of 62 eggs in the United States National Museum average 37 by 26 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measures 40 by 27, 37.5 by 27.5, 34.5 by 25.5, and 35.5 by 25 millimeters.

Plumages.—I have never seen a downy young buff-breasted sandpiper and I doubt if any one else has. Young birds are in juvenal plumage when they migrate southward. They are like the adults, except as follows: The feathers of the mantle are sepia with an olive tinge, “dark grayish olive,” narrowly edged with cream white, giving a scaled appearance, whereas in the adult these feathers are brownish black or black, with very broad edgings of “cinnamon-buff” or “pinkish buff”; the feathers of the lower back, rump and upper tail coverts are from “hair brown” to “fuscous,” tipped with “cinnamon,” whereas in the adult these are brownish black, broadly edged with “cinnamon-buff”; the inner webs of the primaries, on the under side, are much more finely and closely sprinkled with black than in the adult, which has larger, more widely scattered and hence more conspicuous black spots. This last character probably persists through the first year. The postjuvenal molt and the first prenuptial molt are accomplished in South America. I have seen no specimens illustrating these.

Adults have a complete molt, apparently late in the fall or in the winter, the wings being molted last. Doctor Wetmore (1926) shot a male on September 21 that was still in worn breeding plumage. Birds molting primaries have been taken in February and March. Summer and winter plumages are very similar and the sexes are alike, except that the female is much smaller than the male.

Food.—Professor Rowan (1927) says:

I am indebted to the Biological Survey at Washington for kindly analyzing the contents of 17 stomachs, spring taken. Roughly, 40 per cent consisted of Coleoptera, adults and larvae, and 50 per cent of Diptera, chiefly larvae and pupae. Seeds of Polygonum, Potamogeton, and Eleocharis were present to the extent of 1 per cent. The rest consisted of spider and insect remains. I shall be glad to send a detailed list to anyone who may be interested.

Behavior.—The same observer writes:

The buff-breasted sandpiper, like Bartram’s, is a plover in its ways and habits rather than a sandpiper. Even in its coloration it differs radically from the common sandpipers. It is extraordinarily tame and confiding at times. When the mood seizes it, one could without difficulty wipe out every bird of a flock, provided one killed or wounded one with the first shot. The remainder will return again and again to a wounded bird. The noise of the gun seems to have little more than momentary effect.

Owing to the muddy tone of their plumage, these birds are exceptionally difficult to see on the type of ground that they so habitually frequent. One can easily walk into a flock without knowing it till the birds get up almost under foot. This is made the easier by their habit of “freezing.” They stand immobile on being approached, not necessarily crouching, generally the very reverse, but without movement they readily enough escape observation. If they start moving as one gets nearer, it is always on the run. They then carry their necks “craned,” scatter widely, and zig-zag hither and thither rather after the manner of partridges, of which they frequently remind one.

A flock will seldom rise in unison, but the nearer birds will merely fly over and settle on the remote side of the further ones. Even when the buff-breasts are amongst sandpipers, such as Baird’s, Semi-palmateds, etc., five times out of ten they will remain on the spot if the others are scared up. A really large flock is rare. We estimated the number of buff-breasts on a few acres of grass one morning at about 2,000, and we spent several hours in trying to photograph them. They were scattered in clumps in all directions. Although we walked through them from one end to the other more than once, thus tending to herd them, the largest number we were able to put up together was about 150. This constitutes the largest flock we have ever seen. The typical loose association is evident in the photograph. The birds merely flew round and settled again in the vicinity.

On windy days these, like other waders, become exceedingly restless and impossible to approach. They then perform the most remarkable gyrations, always but a few feet above the ground, and seldom rising and falling vertically, as do so many others. They attain great speed and keep in close formation, moving in absolute unison. As such a flock turns in the sunlight there can be no possible error as to identity, for the whole mass looks yellowish. A single bird, in favorable light, may also give one the impression of being yellow.

George H. Mackay (1892a) says of their habits in Massachusetts:

Of the few which I have seen I have remarked their extreme gentleness and desire to be in company with other birds. On one occasion I had one alight among my plover decoys on the upland (which they seem very fond of frequenting), and, not wishing to shoot it, I allowed it to remain for quite a while so I could watch it. During this time it moved about with unconcern, apparently not being aware that its supposed companions were of wood. It seemed so gentle that I determined to see how near it would permit me to approach, and it was not over 5 or 6 feet from me when it flew away, but only for a short time, however, for it returned and alighted in the course of 10 or 15 minutes. Having no desire to shoot it, I allowed it to remain until it departed not to return. All the birds that I have seen come immediately to the decoys on perceiving them, and alight without hesitation or fear. Their flight is rapid, with many turns and zigzag movements, and near the ground, constantly turning up so as to show their entire under parts.

Much of the behavior of the buff-breasted sandpiper, while on the ground, reminds one of the upland plover; it seems to prefer the grassy places rather than the open flats or shores, and often runs away to hide in the grass rather than fly; in running it lifts its feet rather high, as if accustomed to walking through grass; and it often stops and stands with its neck stretched up looking at the intruder, just as the upland plover does.

Voice.—It is not a noisy bird, and seems to have a limited vocabulary. Professor Rowan (1926) says:

The spring note of the buff-breast, on the other hand, is the most unusual and diagnostic wader note that I know. The only thing it reminds me of is the song of the short-billed marsh wren (Cistothorus stellaris), which produces a very excellent imitation of two stones being chipped together. The note of the buff-breast has the same quality about it; but, instead of being loud and clear, it is quiet and very short, and might be described as tik. This species, however, is rather silent. I call this the spring note, but perhaps it should more correctly be termed the adult note, for we have not a single good record of an adult in the autumn, wherefore I am only familiar with young at this season. Like some other waders (e. g. willet), birds of the year have a very different call or calls from spring adults. In the case of the buff-breast the note of the young is so like the pectoral’s—Harold considers it shorter and less harsh—that, although distinguishable in the field, it can hardly be described adequately by itself.

Doctor Wetmore (1926) writes: “As they rise they may give a low call that resembles chwup, somewhat robinlike in tone; a second call note is a low trilled pr-r-r-reet. The species is to be confused in the field with no other shore bird.”

Field marks.—Professor Rowan (1927) says, on this point:

The absence of white margins and black center to the rump, and hence the lack of contrast in this region, I have found to be the most useful diagnostic character in the field. The wing patch is also valuable. The extraordinarily rounded head seen in silhouette against the sun or in bad light at reasonable range has more than once proved useful. The note is always diagnostic.

Doctor Wetmore (1926) writes:

When in the air or on the ground they are distinctly buff in color, with a glimpse of the marbled underwing surface as they rise or pass, and a flash of the gray tail with its darker markings as they alight. On the ground in profile, they show a long neck and long legs, while the short bill is suggestive of that of a pigeon. The neck is drawn in during flight.

E. A. Doolittle (1923) observed that—

The greenish legs, finely streaked crown, buffy breast and sides of head, lack of streak through eyes, and long pointed wings reaching beyond tail were all good field marks while the bird was at rest; while lack of wing bars and rounded tail were striking when the bird took flight.

Fall.—The fall migration is much more widely extended than the spring; the main flight is directly southward through the center of North America, but it is so spread out that some birds appear on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Professor Cooke (1912) says: “The main body of migrants follows the Barren Grounds to the shores of Hudson Bay, thence almost due south across the Mississippi Valley to the coast of Texas, and through Central America to northwestern South America, and diagonally across the interior of South America to Argentina.” A limited flight swings eastward, south of Hudson Bay, or perhaps across it, to the eastern Provinces of Canada and New England. The species is so rare on the Atlantic coast south of Long Island as to indicate the probability of an oversea flight to the West Indies and South America. On the Pacific coast it seems to be very rare, though perhaps it has been overlooked, south of Washington, where it is probably of regular occurrence. D. E. Brown has sent me several records for Washington, the dates ranging from September 3 to 20. Major Allan Brooks (1924) says that he has noted it every year that he has been on the British Columbia coast.

In the interior the adults come along during the last three weeks in August, and the young birds all through September. In New England the dates are about the same. Here they were occasionally seen in small flocks, but now they are so rare that single birds are more often seen in company with upland or golden plover on the rolling uplands, or with other sandpipers on the meadows.

Winter.—It evidently spends the winter south of Argentina, for Doctor Wetmore (1926) saw the first one on September 21 in Paraguay and the last one on November 13 near Buenos Aires; he did not see it again until the return flight in March. Mr. Hudson (1920) says:

It begins to arrive, usually in small bodies, early in the month of October; and during the summer is seldom met with in flocks of any size on the pampas, but is usually seen on the dry, open ground associating in small numbers with the golden plover, the whimbrel, and other northern species. I, however, think it probable that it travels farther south than its fellow-migrants from North America, and has its principal feeding-grounds somewhere in the interior of Patagonia; also that its northern journey takes place later than that of other species.

Doctor Wetmore (1927) says:

The species frequented open flats or muddy shores near lakes or channels, where it was subject to considerable hunting, as several of those seen had been crippled by shooting. From observations at Guamini, it appeared that the species has some resting station in northern Patagonia, perhaps near the mouths of the Rio Colorado and the Rio Negro, or some of the large alkaline lakes of that region. The small numbers remaining are preserved in some such place, but apparently the species is near extinction.

DISTRIBUTION

Range.—North and South America.

Breeding range.—The buff-breasted sandpiper is known to breed only on the Arctic coast of northwestern North America from Alaska (Cape Smythe, Point Barrow, and probably Cape Halkett); east to Yukon (Herschell Island); and Mackenzie (Fort Anderson and Bernard Harbor). It has been detected in summer and may breed at Nulato and Fort Egbert, Alaska, and at Winter Harbor, Franklin (Hennessey), while it also has been noted at this season in eastern Siberia (Cape Wankarem and the south coast of the Okhotsk Sea).

Winter range.—The winter range appears to be restricted to southern South America. They have been noted at this season in Uruguay (Montevideo); and Argentina (Cordoba, Missiones, Rio Parana, Buenos Aires, and Lavalle).

Spring migration.—The spring migration of the buff-breasted sandpiper is imperfectly known, and only a few records are available. It has been detected at Guamini, Argentina, on March 8, at Paramba, Ecuador, on April 22, and at Gatun, Panama, on March 29. On the Atlantic coast of the United States it is practically unknown at this season, old records at Frogmore, South Carolina (May 5), and Kendall (April 20), and Howard (May 8), New York, constituting the meager data at hand.

The main flight is seemingly up the Mississippi Valley, but even in that region, the record is incomplete. The data available are: Louisiana, Bird Islands, May 18; Kentucky, Bowling Green, April 27; Missouri, April 15, and May 20; Illinois, Chicago, April 27; Ohio, Columbus, May 6, 1923 (only record); Iowa, Norway, April; Minnesota, Madison, May 16, and Wilder, May 21; Texas, Corpus Christi, March 17, and Gainesville, April 23; South Dakota, Sioux Falls, May 12, and Fort Sisseton, May 22; North Dakota, Jamestown, May 6, and Harrisburg, May 7; Mackenzie, Fort Chipewyan, May 24, and Fort Simpson, May 29; and Alaska, Demarcation Point, May 26.

Fall migration.—The fall record is more complete and dates of arrival and departure can be given with greater consistency. Early dates of arrival are: British Columbia, Chilliwack, July 23; Keewatin, Cape Eskimo, August 10; Manitoba, Shoal Lake, August 9; North Dakota, Grafton, August 14; South Dakota, Harding County, August 15; Nebraska, Neligh, August 12, and Waverly, August 14; Texas, Tivoli, August 3; Gainesville, August 4, and Brownsville, August 4; Minnesota, Minneapolis, August 1; Iowa, Charles City, August 1, and Sioux City, August 2; Indiana, Millers, August 30; Ohio, Lake County, August 19; Illinois, Chicago, August 16; Louisiana, Abbeville, August 4; Quebec, Godbout, August 7, and Henley Harbor, August 20; Maine, Scarboro, August 1, and Damariscane Island, August 26; New Hampshire, Rye Beach, August 25; Massachusetts, Ipswich, August 7, Cape Cod, August 16, and Nantucket, August 26; Rhode Island, Little Compton, July 22; New York, Canandaigua, July 24, Shelter Island, August 22, Syracuse, August 24, Rockaway, August 25, and Montauk Point, August 26; New Jersey, Toms River, September 8; Virginia, Wallops Island, September 5; North Carolina, Currituck, September 12; Florida, Lake Jackson, September 12; Costa Rica, San Jose, September 7; Colombia, Cienaga, August 12; Peru, Pebas, August 3, and Yquitos, September 2; and Paraguay, Puerto Pinasco, September 21.

Late dates of fall departure are: Washington, Westport, September 3, and Tacoma, September 20; California, Morro, September 14, 1923 (only record for the State); Montana, Yellowstone County, September 1; Colorado, Barr, August 25 and September 4 (only records); Manitoba, Lake Winnipeg, September 5, and Oak Lake, September 9; North Dakota, Jamestown, September 30; Nebraska, Lincoln, October 25; Kansas, Salina, October 10; Texas, Brownsville, October 7, and Corpus Christi, October 10; Wisconsin, Pittston, September 7, and Rock Prairie, September 10; Michigan, Kalamazoo County, September 17; Ohio, Columbus, September 9, Indiana, Lafayette, September 10; Illinois, Chicago, September 28, and Beach, October 2; Missouri, Independence, September 15; Kentucky, Bowling Green, September 7; Quebec, Magdalen Islands, September 13, and Port Burwell, September 28; Maine, Cape Elizabeth, September 13; Massachusetts, Nantucket, September 8, Plum Island, September 15, Monomoy Island, September 19, and Cape Cod, September 24; Rhode Island, Middletown, September 10, Newport, September 15, and Compton, September 23; Connecticut, New Haven, September 30; New York, Orient Point, September 8, Rockaway, September 13, and Mastic, October 6; Lesser Antilles, Barbados, October 6; Costa Rica, San Jose, October 8; and Panama, Gatun, October 18.

Casual records.—The buff-breasted sandpiper has been recorded as taken once at Cardenas, Cuba (Gundlach). There are fifteen or sixteen records for the British Isles, all being for the period from July to September, except one, taken in May, 1829, at Formby, Lancashire. It also has been recorded from Abbeville, Picardy, France (Dalgleish); and from the Province of Owari, Japan (Stejneger). A record of this species from Heligoland, May 9, 1847, is considered by Seebohn as possibly T. subminuta.

Egg Dates.—Arctic coasts of Canada and Alaska: 37 records, June 1 to July 18; 19 records, June 28 to July 3.

ACTITIS MACULARIA (Linnaeus)

SPOTTED SANDPIPER

HABITS

Contributed by Winsor Marrett Tyler

The spotted sandpiper is one of the successful species of birds.

The old writers, speaking of a time when the surface of the country was very different from at present, are in accord as to the abundance of this bird in North America. Wilson (1832) refers to it as “very common”; Nuttall (1834) says it is “one of the most familiar and common of all the New England marsh birds”; and Audubon (1840) reports it “quite abundant along the margins of the Mississippi, the Ohio, and their tributaries,” and “on the island of Jestico, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, about 20 pairs had nests and eggs, * * * and the air was filled with the pleasant sound of their voices.”

At the present time we find the bird apparently little diminished in numbers. In the numerous local lists published from every part of the country the spotted sandpiper almost always has a place. Notations such as “seen daily throughout the summer” or “common along the streams” indicate the wide distribution and abundance of the species. Indeed it is the best known of our sandpipers, not only because of its extensive breeding range, extending from coast to coast and northward into Alaska and Labrador, but by reason of its individual and peculiar habit of flight and its characteristic notes.

Almost every inhabitant of the United States, sometime during the year, may meet this graceful little wader stepping delicately along the margin of some sandy pond, the shore of the sea, or skimming from perch to perch on the rocks bordering a mountain stream.

Poised well above the ground on its slim greenish-yellow legs it walks slowly and carefully along the shore, picking up a bit of food now on this side, now on that. It goes forward with a switching motion, head reached well forward and a little lowered. Except when creeping up within reach of an insect or when its attention is riveted on the snapping up of a bit of food the tail is almost continuously in motion up and down. At the least alarm the motion is increased to a wider arc until the posterior half of the bird’s body is rapidly teetering. A little increase in alarm and the bird is off on vibrating wings held stiffly and cupped with the tips depressed, sailing along the shore away from danger. As the bird takes wing it gives, almost without exception, its whistled call, peet-weet-weet, a call so associated with the bird that Nuttall long ago give it the name peet-weet.

Spring.—The spotted sandpiper moves northward earlier than the other sandpipers. It enters the transitional zone in late April and early May, its time of arrival coinciding very closely with the chewink, another ground feeder. It returns to its breeding ground inconspicuously, never passing by in the large flocks characteristic of many sandpipers, but appears on the first day of its arrival running about on the shore of its chosen bit of water, apparently settled for the season. In this habit of not gathering into flocks it resembles its relative the solitary sandpiper.

Wright and Harper (1913) speak of a few birds, left behind after most of the species had spread over the country to the north, tarrying in the Okefinokee Swamp till late in the spring:

The spotted sandpiper was a distinct surprise as a summer resident of the swamp. Not only is this several hundred miles south of its known breeding range, but one would not expect it to find a suitable haunt in the Okefinokee. The lakes and rivers are practically shoreless; they are simply open spaces in the otherwise continuous cypress swamps. However, the logs and driftwood near the edges of Billys Lake serve as teetering stands; half a dozen were seen here on May 11, one on June 5, and still another a few days later. The species probably does not breed in this latitude.

Courtship.—The courtship of the spotted sandpiper has not been observed very minutely. Some of the few published reports on the subject show a discrepancy in details, and one, giving an instance of display by a bird proved by dissection to be a female, casts doubts on all records of courtship based on sight identification and raises the question as to the respective rôles played by the sexes in the home-life of the species.

Bradford Torrey (1885), assuming the bird to be a male, speaks of

A spotted sandpiper, whose capers I amused myself with watching, one day last June, on the shore of Saco Lake. As I caught sight of him, he was straightening himself up, with a pretty, self-conscious air, at the same time spreading his white-edged tail, and calling, tweet, tweet, tweet. Afterwards he got upon a log, where, with head erect and wings thrown forward and downward, he ran for a yard or two, calling as before. This trick seemed especially to please him, and was several times repeated. He ran rapidly, and with a comical prancing movement; but nothing he did was half as laughable as the behavior of his mate, who all this while dressed her feathers without once deigning to look at her spouse’s performance.

Whittle (1922) describes a similar action of a bird observed in Montana on May 29:

One of the birds, judged to be a male, was seen standing on a long, inclined timber, while another, presumed to be a female, fed close by along the shore. The male first walked the length of the timber and then flew to another one, where he depressed and spread his tail, and, without teetering, stalked slowly along its entire length, with head bent low.

Lewis O. Shelley (1925) reports from New Hampshire a courtship display which differs from the two previous ones. Here again the respective sexes are assumed:

A female sandpiper came running along the brook, occasionally stopping to pick up an insect and teeter, then run on again. Behind her were two males, the first strutting along, looking much like a goose, craning his neck up, swelling out his throat, drooping his wings, and spreading his tail; the second kept well to the rear, and did no strutting.

Every time the female stopped for a second, or slowed, the male would dart past her and stop, throw his head higher, and make a fump, fump, fump, in his throat. If that failed to attract her attention, he would again pass her and alternately spread wings and tail. This performance went on all the afternoon, until almost dusk.

This observation describes a courtship in which the behavior of the aggressive bird corresponds closely, especially in the movements of the head, with the action of the bird noted in the next quotation—a bird proved by dissection to be a female.

A. J. Van Rossem (1925) gives the following extract from Dr. Loye Miller’s notebook:

Altitude, 9,000 feet; Mammoth Lakes, Inyo County, Calif.; July 4, 1923: [spotted] sandpipers are just beginning to pair, and several seen in courting flights. One especially active bird was shot and proved to be a female. She came to an imitation of the call—soared over a fallen log before alighting on it. She then ruffed out the feathers and strutted like a turkey cock, with head thrown back. The ova were the size of buckshot.

Nesting.—The breeding range of the spotted sandpiper, extending over a vast area of diversified land, ranging in altitude from sea-level to 14,000 feet, and including both arid and well-watered country, makes necessary in the bird a wide degree of adaptability in the choice of its nesting site. Few birds show a greater variation in this respect and among the places which the bird selects to lay its eggs there is but one point in common—the proximity of water.

The following quotations bring out the extreme variety of nesting sites: Mearns (1890) writing of the bird in Arizona says: “These birds were apparently breeding at a small lake, in a crater-like depression at the summit of a volcanic peak arising near the western base of the San Francisco cone, the lake being at an altitude of from 10,000 to 10,500 feet.” Shick (1890) reports the bird in New Jersey as breeding “in the higher parts of the island, generally on a sandy knoll in the high, rank sedge grass,” and Audubon (1840), speaks of the nests “in Labrador, where, in every instance, they were concealed under ledges of rocks extending for several feet over them, so I probably should not have observed them, had not the birds flown off as I was passing.” He also speaks, quoting Nuttall, of “their eggs laid in a strawberry bed.” Dwight (1893) records a nest “found in an odd situation at Tignish [Prince Edward Island]. It was under a decayed log in a boggy slope, and was carefully lined with bits of rotten wood.”

In the use of material to construct or line its nest the bird shows nearly as much variation as in the choice of the nesting site and it may be stated roughly that the more northerly the latitude of the breeding ground, the bulkier is the nest. Audubon (1840) says, speaking of the nests found in Labrador:

They were more bulky and more neatly constructed than any that I have examined southward of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. * * * These nests [those in Labrador] were made of dry moss, raised to the height of from 6 to 9 inches, and well finished within with slender grasses and feathers of the eider duck.

Brewster (1925) speaks of the bird as:

Especially given to breeding on small islands in Lake Umbagog [Maine], scarce one of which is left untenanted by them at the right season or resorted to by more than a single pair. Their eggs, almost invariably four in number, are usually laid during the last week of May, in saucer-shaped hollows scraped in surface soil, and thinly lined with dry grass. * * * If the island be treeless and ledgy, the nest is likely to be on or near the most elevated or central part, and more or less well concealed by grass or other lowly vegetation. But if all the ground, not subject to inundation, be densely wooded, the spot where the bird has hidden her treasures is seldom far back from the shore, and perhaps scarce above highwater mark, usually where driftwood has accumulated, or beneath the leafy branch of some outstanding alder or Cassandra bush. In such places as these, it is by no means easy to find the nest, even when the total area to be searched is only a few rods square. The task may well seem hopeless if undertaken in the open farming country about the southern end of the Lake, for, although spotted sandpipers breed here not uncommonly, they are so widely and sparsely distributed over hilly pastures and fields of considerable extent, that it is only by the merest chance that anybody ever stumbles on a nest. The only one that I have happened upon was well hidden in a tangle of withered grass and ferns, covering a steeply sloping bank by the roadside.

In incubation as well as in courtship the male has been shown to assume duties which are usually ascribed to the female. The following quotation illustrates this fact. Van Rossem (1925) says:

On July 11, in a boggy meadow near the water’s edge, we found a nest of four eggs which seemed nearly fresh. We often had occasion to pass this nest, but there was never more than one bird present. On July 25 the eggs had hatched and after a short search we found the downy young in the short grass. They were collected with the parent, which proved to be the male. The sides of his breast and belly were worn quite bare of feathers, showing that he had done most of if not all of the incubating. The succeeding days, we frequently passed the old nesting place, but never saw any other sandpiper in the vicinity. On July 26 Alden Miller and the writer were on the headwaters of the San Joaquin River, in Madera County [California], and while there found a nest on a grass-grown gravel bar in the river. It contained young which were just emerging from the shells. These were collected with the parent which, as in the first case, was a male. We were at this nest and in the immediate vicinity nearly an hour, but no other adult appeared.

Although as a rule the spotted sandpiper does not build near the nest of other birds of the same species, in exceptional cases many pairs nest in close proximity to each other.

L. McI. Terrill (1911), illustrating this gregarious habit, says:

A few years ago a large colony were nesting on Isle Ronde (a small island of a few acres, opposite the city of Montreal). Visiting this island on May 26, 1896, I located without difficulty 13 occupied nests. Again, on May 31, 1898, I examined upward of 25. On each occasion only a small portion of the island was examined, and I estimated that there were well over 100 pairs breeding.

Mousley (1916) points out that—

It may not be generally known that these birds if flushed whilst constructing their nest invariably desert it, at least this has been my experience on four occasions, when I have flushed both birds whilst in the act of scooping out or lining the hole. In one instance, however, they made a fresh nest within 45 feet of the old one.

Eggs.—[Author’s note: The spotted sandpiper lays almost invariably 4 eggs, very rarely 5, and rarely only 3. These are ovate in shape, less pyriform than the eggs of most waders, and they have only a very slight gloss. The prevailing ground color is “cartridge buff,” with some variations to “pinkish buff,” or “pale olive buff.” They are irregularly spotted or blotched, usually both; sometimes they are finely and evenly sprinkled with small spots; and very rarely the markings are concentrated at the larger end. The markings are mostly in very dark browns, “seal brown,” “clove brown,” and “blackish brown,” and rarely as light as “Mars brown” or “russet.” The underlying markings are generally lacking or inconspicuous, but some handsome eggs are blotched with “lavender gray,” “pallid purple drab,” or “brownish drab.” The measurements of 88 eggs, in the United States National Museum, average 32 by 23 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 34 by 25, 29 by 23, and 33 by 20 millimeters.]

Young.—The young spotted sandpiper furnishes an instance of an ancestral habit springing into action almost at the moment of hatching. When no larger than the egg from which they have just stepped they run over the sand teetering their tail in the manner of their parents. My notes mention a little bird, no more than a tiny ball of fluff, which stood on my hand waving up and down the feathery plumes of its infinitesimal tail.

Wilson (1832) says: “The young, as soon as they are freed from the shell, run about constantly wagging the tail,” and Nuttall (1834) speaks of “the habit of balancing or wagging the tail, in which even the young join as soon as they are fledged.”

Another example of the precociousness of the fledgling sandpiper is its ability to swim while still in the down. G. M. Sutton (1925) speaks of the habit thus:

Upon several occasions within the writer’s experience downy young of the spotted sandpiper, when closely pursued, have taken to the water, where they swam lightly although not very rapidly in making an escape.

Dr. C. W. Townsend (1920) cites a case in which a young bird, evidently in juvenal plumage, swam under water:

In Labrador I caught a nearly full-grown young still unable to fly and put it in a small river. It at once dove and swam under water for a distance of 3 or 4 feet, using for propulsion its wings and probably its feet, although I could not be sure of the latter point. It then rose to the surface and swam to the opposite side like a little duck and walked out on the sand, where the mother was anxiously calling.

Aretas A. Saunders also mentions in his notes a case of diving:

Young birds when away from the parent and threatened with danger often take to water and dive and swim under water, using the wings to help swim. At such times the down is covered with air bubbles, which helps keep them dry and gives them a silvery appearance. Once I pursued a young bird I wished to band, and it did this so many times that it became wet in spite of the air bubbles, and in fact was quite chilled through for a time.

More commonly the method of escaping danger adopted by the young sandpipers is to lie motionless on the beach, where a pebbly shore affords an ideal background for concealment. William Palmer (1909) brings out the success of this ruse thus:

While walking along a beach one summer a spotted sandpiper (Actitis macularia) and a single young were noticed some distance ahead. As I approached the place the old bird, with the startled manner characteristic of its kind at such a time, kept well ahead, but I could not find the other. Going back some distance, I waited and soon saw it again with its parent. I repeated my quest, and again failed to find the youngster. Going back once more and again seeing it rejoin the old bird, I slowly moved forward, keeping my eyes this time very intently on it, and soon picked it up from the sand, an unwilling captive.

A. A. Saunders gives in his notes a picture of the parental care of the young. The young birds are—

able to run and follow the parent when about half an hour from the egg (two instances). The parent leads them away and watches over them for a few days after hatching, after which they gradually stray away from her (?) care. At Flathead Lake [Montana] one bird hatched her young and led them down the beach, and I followed to see what would happen. When I got too near the mother (?) called Peet! peet! peet! in a loud, sharp call. The young immediately flattened themselves down among the pebbles so effectually I could only find one. I sat down on a log, and after waiting some 20 minutes the parent quieted down—flew to the opposite side of her young from me, turned and faced them, and began to call tootawee, tootawee, tootawee over and over. The young immediately responded and began a hurried run for the mother (?), calling baby peeps and tumbling over the pebbles in their eagerness. The parent half spread its wings as they arrived and they took shelter beneath, just as chickens do under a hen.

The period of incubation is 15 days.

Plumages.—[Author’s note: The young spotted sandpiper in the natal down is quite uniformly grizzled or mottled on the upper parts, from crown to rump, with “buffy brown,” “wood brown,” grayish buff, and black. The forehead is grayish buff, and the entire under parts are white; a narrow black stripe extends from the bill through the eye to the nape; a black patch in the center of the crown extends as an indistinct median stripe down the nape and broadens to a black band along the back to the rump.

The juvenal plumage comes in first on the mantle and wings, then on the flanks, breast, and crown, and lastly on the neck, rump, and tail. The upper parts are “light brownish olive,” more grayish on the sides of the neck and chest; the scapulars and upper tail coverts have a subterminal sepia bar and are tipped with pale buff or creamy white; the lesser and median wing coverts are conspicuously barred with pale buff and sepia; the chin, throat, and under parts are white.

During the fall, beginning late in August, or in September, some of the body plumage, tail and some tertials and wing coverts are molted, producing the first winter plumage. This postjuvenal molt is very limited and very variable; I have seen birds in juvenal plumage as late as December 3. The first winter plumage is like the adult winter, except for the retained juvenal wing coverts. It is worn until March or April. The wings are molted during the winter at any time from October to April; and during March and April the body plumage is molted, producing the first nuptial plumage. This is like the adult nuptial, but there is more gray on the sides of the neck and less spotting on the breast, sometimes very little of the latter. But the plumage is practically adult, except for a few retained juvenal wing coverts.

Adults have a complete postnuptial molt beginning with the body plumage in August, or earlier, and ending with the molt of the primaries at any time from October to April. In winter plumage the upper parts are plain “dark grayish olive,” shading off lighter on the sides of the head and neck; the under parts are white, faintly washed with grayish on the throat. The partial prenuptial molt, involving only the body plumage comes in March and April and produces the spotted breast of the nuptial plumage.]

Food.—At the seacoast the spotted sandpiper searches for its food both on the beach and on the muddy borders of creeks and inlets, wading into the water, however, less frequently than most sandpipers; inland it feeds along the margins of sandy ponds, sluggish meadow streams and rushing mountain torrents; in farming country it strays into the meadows, fields, and market gardens and finds in all these situations food which it picks up from the low vegetation or from the ground.

Like some of the other sandpipers, however, and like several other birds which have the agility to do so, it easily captures flying insects even when they are on the wing. In order to come within striking distance of an insect before it flies away, the spotted sandpiper resorts to a ruse by which its approaching head and beak are concealed or made inconspicuous. As the bird walks over windrows of seaweed and such places where flies abound, it stretches its body out with the bill pointing straight in front, the whole bird lengthened into a line with the long axis parallel to the ground. In this position the head, from the flies’ point of view is masked by the body as a background and the bird is enabled to come so near that it can snap up a fly, even after it has taken wing, by a straight forward movement of the head. In stalking a flying prey the spotted sandpiper creeps up to the fly, moving slowly with cat-like steps, the tail motionless, and apparently never adopts the well-known trick of the semipalmated sandpiper, the running about with the hind part of the body tilted far upward, advancing upon a fly under cover of this as a screen.

A complete list of the insects which form the spotted sandpiper’s diet, could one be compiled, would doubtless be a very long one, comprising as it would both marine and land insects. The wide range of the bird’s choice of food is shown by the following quotations which prove definitely that it is a very beneficial species to the agriculturalist.

E. H. Forbush (1925), speaking of the bird’s habit of frequenting cultivated fields, says:

They feed largely on locusts, grasshoppers and caterpillars, such as cutworms, cabbage worms and army worms, also beetles, grubs and other pests of cultivated lands.

H. K. Job (1911) writes:

The usual food of most species of this class [shore birds] is aquatic insect life of all sorts. This is in part the diet of the spotted sandpiper. But as it is also a bird of field and pasture, its range of insect food is very wide, including grasshoppers and locusts. Probably almost anything in the insect line is grist for its hopper, and it is a most useful bird.

Austin H. Clark (1905a) furnishes the following unusual observation:

While on the island of St. Vincent, West Indies, last October, I observed a number of our shore birds feeding on the young of a small fish known as the “tri tri” (Sicydium plumieri), which were at that time ascending the Richmond River, near which I was staying, by thousands. The land about the lower reaches of this river was laid completely bare by the recent eruptions of the Soufrière, and in its present state proves very attractive to all the species of shore birds which visit the island during the migrations. Those observed or proved by dissection to be eating the young tri tri (which were at that time from half an inch to an inch and a quarter long) were * * * solitary sandpipers (Helodromas solitarius), and spotted sandpipers (Actitis macularia). All but the last two kept near the mouth of the river, or on the flat lands along its lower reaches; the solitary sandpiper followed the stream up into what were formerly arrowroot fields, half or three-quarters of a mile from the sea, and the spotted sandpiper was found well into the mountain forests.

W. H. Bergtold (1926) cites an instance of the bird’s catching another swift-moving fish. He says that the caretakers at the Wigwam Fishing Club, Colorado, “reported the spotted sandpiper as also catching trout fry.”

The following quotation adds crickets to the list of insects; H. W. Jewell (1909) writes:

While sitting on the banks of Sandy River one night I was attracted to the actions of a spotted sandpiper. There were lots of crickets on the shore of the river, and the sandpiper would catch one in its bill, run up to the water, and immerse the insect several times, then swallow it. This seemed a very interesting performance to me, and I wondered if all living insects caught are thus treated before they are eaten. The cricket is quite a large insect, and as this bird ate 10 or 12 he did not go to bed hungry that night.

Alexander Wetmore (1916), who examined the contents of nine stomachs, says: “Though mole crickets (Scapteriscus didactylos) were found in but two stomachs, they form 10.78 per cent of the total food.” Summarizing his findings, he concludes, “From the foregoing the spotted sandpiper is a beneficial species and should not be molested.”

Behavior.—Nothing is more characteristic of the spotted sandpiper than its flight. When it first starts from the shore the wings seem to vibrate like a taut wire; then, as the bird gains headway, they set and, depressed and quivering, they carry the bird slowly onward, often swaying from side to side, close to the surface of the water. As a rule, when startled, the sandpiper takes a semicircular course and alights a short distance farther up the beach, and if followed either takes another flight onward or doubles back as a kingfisher would do under similar circumstances. This scaling flight, somewhat after the manner of a meadow lark, is seen most commonly during the summer, but on infrequent occasions the sandpiper lets go his wings and carries them back with a long, free sweep and speeds through the air with the rapidity of a swallow. The transition from one kind of flight to the other is remarkable to see; with outstretched neck it drives along with regular wing beats, a long, slender, unfamiliar-looking wader.

J. T. Nichols mentions in his notes this peculiar flight; he says:

One might be familiar with the bird for years and believe it [the scaling flight] invariable. Careful attention in late summer and fall, however, will demonstrate that it is not. When, as rarely happens, the spotted sandpiper rises to some height to make a considerable aerial passage (especially over a stretch of marsh) the flight becomes regular like that of a miniature yellowlegs, or swift and darting as it sometimes is with a white-rumped sandpiper for instance. It also, at times, flies low over the tops of the marsh grass in this last named manner. To identify such birds in the air is very difficult, and they will pass for some one of the other sandpipers of rather small size if one does not chance to appreciate the slenderer neck and somewhat different shape, or the more uniform color of the upper parts.

The ability to swim and dive which is so noticeable in the young of the spotted sandpiper is even more remarkably evident in the behavior of the adult bird. Of the many instances recorded in the literature, the following will illustrate this well developed proclivity.

E. H. Forbush (1912) speaks thus of the action of a wounded bird:

In September, 1876, I saw a wounded bird of this species when pursued, dive into deep water from the shore of the Charles River and fly off under water, using its wings somewhat as a bird would use them in the air. All its plumage was covered with bubbles of air, which caught the light until the bird appeared as if studded with sparkling gems as it sped away into the depths of the dark river.

Later (1925) he adds a record of the bird actually running along the bottom while entirely submerged. The spotted sandpiper—

can dive from the surface of the water or from full flight, at need. Under water it progresses by using its wings which it spreads quite widely, and in shallow water it can go to the bottom and run a short distance with head held low and tail raised like an ouzel or dipper.

G. M. Sutton (1925) describes the behavior of two birds which he startled by a close sudden approach. In the first quotation he shows that the spotted sandpiper readily dives while on the wing and continues its flight under water and in the second quotation he shows the bird’s ability to rise directly into the air from beneath the water, a feat impossible for many water birds.

When the bird first flushed, its wings were fully spread, and it was headed for the open water of the lake. Upon seeing me towering above it, however, it turned its course abruptly downward, and without the slightest hesitation flew straight into the water. With wings fully outspread and legs kicking it made its way rather slowly along the sandy bottom, until it was about 8 feet out, in water over 3 feet deep. I pursued the bird, thinking at the time, strangely enough, that it was wounded. When I reached for it, it tried to go farther but apparently could not. Bubbles of air came from its mouth, and air bubbles were plainly seen clinging to the plumage of its back. At the time it was captured its mouth, eyes, and wings were all open, under water, and it remained at the bottom seemingly without difficulty. As it lay in my hands above water it seemed tired for a second or two, and then, without warning, shook itself a little, leaped into the air, and with loud, clear whistles, circled off a few inches above the water to a distant point of land.

On a subsequent occasion, May 7, 1925, Mr. Sutton—

purposely came upon a spotted sandpiper suddenly and witnessed it employ almost the identical tactics in making an effective escape. At this time, however, the bird dove into running water, swam with wings and feet rapidly moving for about 20 feet, and emerged down stream, still flying, and made off in its characteristic way, only a few inches above the water.

L. L. Jewel (1915), watching a sandpiper in Panama under most favorable circumstances was able to make out clearly the position of the feet while the bird was swimming under water. The beach where Mr. Jewel made this observation was, as he describes it:

A wide coral reef, bare at low tide, and with occasional openings or “wells” connected underneath with the sea. Some of these are of considerable size and the water in all is as clear as crystal to all depths—clear as only those who have seen such tropical “coral water” can imagine. * * *

I had however a perfect view of the bird as he “flew” the 10 feet across the pool, through the beautifully clear water which showed white pebbles distinctly on a bottom perhaps 20 feet below. The bird crossed at a uniform depth of 18 inches to 2 feet, which he held until he brought up against the opposite wall. The head and neck were extended but not at all stretched while the legs and feet trailed behind with flexed toes, like a heron in flight. The wings seemed to be opened to only perhaps half their full extent—the primaries pointing well backward like wings are trimmed as birds cut down from some height to alight. The wing-beats were slow and even but not labored, and progress was uniform and not at all hurried.

In addition to the anomalous behavior of the spotted sandpiper in and under the water, the bird shows a further departure from the regular habits of the other shore birds in its ability and frequent tendency to perch on small supports which requires a grasping power in the feet to hold the bird in place. My notes supply an extreme instance of this habit, noting the action of an adult bird (exercised, to be sure, over the safety of its young) which alighted on a slender wire running between poles and stood crouched a little and leaning forward, but keeping its balance by securely gripping the wire.

The literature furnishes one other record of grasping a wire. L. L. Snyder (1924) reports thus:

On June 25, 1923, at Orient Bay, Lake Nipigon, Ontario, the writer observed a spotted sandpiper perching on a telegraph wire. The fact that the species was perching was not surprising but the size of the perch made the observation of interest. The bird was not in an erect position, being squatted, which probably made the feat less difficult. In this case the act was entirely voluntary and not an instance of unusual conduct due to the pressure of an emergency.

Other quotations, showing the bird acting in unsandpiper-like behavior follow. Mousley (1915) says:

On one occasion only have I seen a very excited parent bird with young alight on a cat-tail head, and very out of place and uncomfortable it seemed to be.

H. H. Cleaves (1908) says:

We were returning along a rather unused railroad when, in an area to one side, which was flooded for the most part with a number of inches of water, we noticed a spotted sandpiper flying about in circles and acting peculiarly. We had all come to the conclusion that her young were about somewhere, when she did a most peculiar thing. The wet area in question was covered with considerable underbrush, out of which grew rather tall, second-growth timber. The sandpiper alighted on the tops of some of these trees, on the small twigs, and remained balancing there for some time, fully 25 or 30 feet from the ground. This performance she repeated several times, making her appear for all the world like a perching bird.

P. A. Taverner (1919) says:

Common all along the river [Red Deer River, Alberta] and breeding everywhere. One bird on being flushed from her eggs flew into adjoining bushes and climbed about them in a most unwaderlike style while complaining at our intrusion.

J. T. Nichols points out in his notes that the foot of the spotted sandpiper is adapted to its peculiar habits; that the bird is able to grasp a small object because the front toes are nearer together than in most waders and the hind toe is more developed. He says:

The footmarks of the spotted sandpiper on moist sand or mud are recognizable. Compared to those of related birds the toes are relatively little spreading, and the mark left by the hind toe relatively large and conspicuous.

Under the title “Spotted Sandpiper Removing its Young” J. C. Merrill (1898) describes a very remarkable performance, the only record of such behavior noted in the literature.

A clearly observed case of the spotted sandpiper (Actitis macularia) removing its young by flight recently came under my notice, and I place it upon record, as such instances are rarely seen, though they are, perhaps, of tolerably frequent occurrence, as in the case of the woodcock.

Last summer, in the month of July, I frequently landed on a little rocky islet near the head of the Saquenay River, shortly after it issues from Lake St. John. Each time a spotted sandpiper showed much concern for her young, which were often seen running about and were a few days old. On one of these occasions, the mother ran ahead of me to a point of rocks near which I stopped to fish. A few moments later she flew, circling in the usual manner, and as she passed in front of me and within a few feet, I saw one of the young beneath her body, apparently clasped by her thighs; its head was directed forward, somewhat outstretched, and was seen with perfect distinctness. The parent’s legs were apparently hanging down as she flew, though I am not positive that what I saw were not the legs of the young. The mother was in sight for about 60 yards, flying heavily and silently, and landed on a large island, though I could not see her at the moment of alighting.

Voice.—The notes of the spotted sandpiper are mainly modified and extended from its common alarm note, the sharp, clear whistle, peet-weet, but as in the case of many birds, degrees of emotion may be expressed by a little change in pitch or inflection. When considerably alarmed the bird continues to repeat the weet note often giving a long series which trails off in diminuendo like the quacking of a duck.

J. T. Nichols (1920) describes a series of notes:

Hoy, hoy, weet, weet, weet, weet, weet, weet, weet is a prolonged call frequently heard in the early part of the nesting season, in toto or in part, suggesting in that respect the songs of the cuckoos. It doubtless has value as advertisement or location notice and something the significance of a very generalized song. A series of loud weets, heard also at other times of year, the most far-reaching call of the species, doubtless serves as location notice.

A. A. Saunders in his notes similarly describes the “song.” He says:

I believe the long call weet, weet, weet, weet, weet, weet, weet, peet a weet, peet a weet, peet a weet, peet a weet serves as a song. I have seen it sung in flight, when the actions and flight of the bird were similar to those of other flight singers.

Both of these observers describe the soft crooning note used by the parent to bring together its young. Nichols says that, “a rolling note, kerrwee, kerrwee, kerrwee, now loud, now very low and distant, has been heard from an adult with the evident purpose of assembling her young; and Saunders speaks of a parent bird which called to its young, tootawee, tootawee, tootawee, tootawee over and over. The call is like the peet a weet in form, but lower pitched and softer.”

A common note, heard during the summer on the breeding ground when the birds are undisturbed, resembles closely the whistle of the little frog, Hyla pickeringii. This is a far-reaching whistled note, not given in a series like the weet, weet call. It is a single note, apparently, repeated over and over again, not regularly, but always with an interval between each repetition.

It is clear that Nichols has this note in mind when he says, “Pip! pip! pip! is a note heard between adult birds in the breeding season which seems to be of polite address, or possibly impolite, as it is almost identical in form with a note of protest by old birds when nest or young are threatened.”

Continuing, he describes two other notes, “the pit-wit-wit frequently heard from adults as a note of departure may best be considered a variation of this one [the pip wip of the young] as also the peet weet weet or weet weet most frequent a little later in the season as little companies of birds start out over the water for longer or shorter distances.

“An old bird, surprised near her brood and fluttering off playing wounded called cheerp cheerp a sort of scream as of pain and fear.”

Field marks.—The spotted sandpiper is one of the prettiest, most delicate, and trim of the shore birds; in place of the browns and greys of the streaked upper parts of most waders there is a plain greenish sheen on the back, and in autumn across the breast a soft tint like a fawn. Through the glass the wings show a fine mottling, suggesting a wren. The line of white at the posterior margin of the open wing is a good diagnostic mark, and its habit of teetering makes identification certain. The only bird which resembles the spotted sandpiper at all closely is its larger relative the solitary sandpiper, but the characteristic motion of this bird is a ploverlike hitching movement or bob, as if hiccoughing, very different from the spotted sandpiper’s rapid swaying up and down of the hinder part of the body.

Enemies.—The chief enemies of the spotted sandpiper are the swift-moving hawks, whose pursuit it sometimes successfully eludes by diving in the manner described above. J. E. H. Kelso (1926) records an instance of this habit. He says:

Skirting the lake shore in my sneak boat a spotted sandpiper was repeatedly disturbed, flew along in front of the boat to settle again and again on the shore. It then made off to cross a small bay, when a pigeon hawk dashed out from some trees and made a stoop or two at the dodging sandpiper, which would certainly soon have been captured in the air if it had not suddenly alighted on the water. This for a few seconds confused the hawk, which circled just over its quarry and appeared to try to capture it with its talons. The sandpiper dove, remaining under 3 or 4 seconds. The hawk on the disappearance of its intended victim at once made off at a great pace.

W. H. Osgood (1909) describes an escape in this manner from an attack by a northern shrike.

Wilson (1832) in his most charming manner tells this delightful story:

My venerable friend, Mr. William Bartram, informs me that he saw one of these birds defend her young for a considerable time from the repeated attacks of a ground squirrel. The scene of action was on the river shore. The parent had thrown herself, with her two young behind her, between them and the land, and at every attempt of the squirrel to seize them by a circuitous sweep raised both her wings in an almost perpendicular position, assuming the most formidable appearance she was capable of, and rushed forwards on the squirrel, who, intimidated by her boldness and manner, instantly retreated; but presently returning was met, as before, in front and on flank by the daring and affectionate bird, who with her wings and whole plumage bristling up seemed swelled to twice her usual size. The young crowded together behind her, apparently sensible of their perilous situation, moving backward and forward as she advanced or retreated. This interesting scene lasted for at least 10 minutes; the strength of the poor parent began evidently to flag, and the attacks of the squirrel became more daring and frequent, when my good friend, like one of those celestial agents who in Homer’s time so often decided the palm of victory, stepped forward from his retreat, drove the assailant back to his hole, and rescued the innocent from destruction.

A. A. Saunders sends the following suggestive note:

Once on Sherwoods Island, Westport, Conn., in September, I saw a bird fly ahead of me with something large and black looking dangling beneath it. The bird could hardly fly and tried to hide in the beach grass as I approached. I caught it and found that a large specimen of the common edible mussel (Mytilus edulis) had closed its shell on the middle toe of the bird’s left foot. The toe was nearly severed just above the nail, and since I couldn’t pry the mussel open, I cut through the bit of skin left and freed the bird.

Fall.—As is the case during its northward migration, the spotted sandpiper leaves its breeding ground and moves to its winter quarters inconspicuously, showing little tendency to gather into flocks. Its voice is not infrequently heard among the notes of the autumnal nocturnal migrants—an indication that the bird in a measure makes use of the safe, dark hours during its long journey southward.

Cooke (1897) says: “In the fall [in Colorado] it ranges above the pines to 14,000 feet,” illustrating the tendency to wander about in autumn.

Game.—During the years, now past, when the smaller shore birds could legally be shot for food or sport the spotted sandpiper suffered less than some of the other Limicolae by reason of its more solitary habit. The gunners, waiting for several of their tiny target to come within range of a single shot, often disregarded a spotted sandpiper running alone on the shore.

Winter.—Most of the spotted sandpipers leave the United States to spend the winter on the islands to the southward, and in South America, but the species is nevertheless well represented in California during the winter, and in the Southern States on the Atlantic seaboard.

George Willett (1912) “found this species plentiful in winter around Santa Barbara Islands and on rocky shores of the mainland.”

Dr. Alexander Wetmore (1916) speaking of the bird as a winter visitant of Porto Rico says:

It frequents the mangrove swamps, borders of lagoons, margins of all the streams, and occasionally the sandy beaches. During the winter season it follows inland along the small streams and occurs throughout the island.

And (1927) reporting the birds’ winter status in South America says—

It is a regular migrant in South America as far as Bolivia and southern Brazil, and on March 4, 1918, several were found by Mogensen at Concepcion, Province of Tucuman, in northern Argentina. On October 25, 1920, one was taken by the writer near the mouth of the Rio Ajo on the eastern coast of the Province of Buenos Aires, the southernmost point at which the species is known.

DISTRIBUTION

Range.—North and South America; accidental in Europe.

Breeding range.—The breeding range of the spotted sandpiper extends north to Alaska (Kobuk River, Fort Yukon, and Circle); Yukon (La Pierre House); Mackenzie (Fort McPherson, Arctic Red River, Fort Anderson, Aylmer Lake, Clinton-Colden Lake, and Artillery Lake); Manitoba (Fort Du Brochet, Fort Churchill, and York Factory); Ungava (Fort Chimo); and Labrador (Okak). East of Labrador (Okak and Rigolet); eastern Quebec (Sloop Harbor and Wolf Bay); Newfoundland (Humber River and Penguin Island); Nova Scotia (Breton Island, Pictou, and Yarmouth); Maine (Thomaston); New Hampshire (Portsmouth); Massachusetts (Boston and Woods Hole); Rhode Island (Block Island); New York (Shelter Island); New Jersey (Red Bank and Five-mile Beach); Maryland (Cambridge); Virginia (Cobb Island and Richmond); North Carolina (Kona, Fort Macon, and Wilmington); and probably South Carolina (Chester and Columbia). South to probably South Carolina (Columbia); probably Georgia (Okefinokee Swamp); Alabama (Autauga County and Greensboro); Louisiana (New Orleans, Baton Rouge, and Vermilion Bay); Texas (Corsicana, Calhoun County, Austin, Buffalo Bayou, Kerrville, Concho County, and Tom Green County); New Mexico (Las Vegas, Willis, and Espanola); Arizona (Camp Verde); and California (Santa Paula). West to California (Santa Paula, Kernville, Lime Kiln, Royal Arches, Lake Tahoe, and Eagle Lake); Oregon (Fort Klamath, Elkton, Eugene, Corvallis, Salem, Dayton, and Portland); Washington (Bellingham Bay); British Columbia (Vancouver and Skidegate); and Alaska (Lewis Point, Sitka, Idaho Inlet, Glacier Bay, Hinchinbrook Island, Port Nell Juan, Lake Clark, Mount McKinley, Nulato, and Kobuk River).

Nonbreeding individuals also have been observed in summer in the Bahama Islands; Porto Rico; Jamaica; Guadeloupe; Barbados; Grenada; St. Vincent; Dominica; Martinique; Florida (Fruitland Park, Indian Key, and Seven Oaks); Chihuahua (Pachaco); and Nyarit (Tres Marias Islands).

Winter range.—In winter, the spotted sandpiper ranges north rarely to British Columbia (Courtenay and Chilliwack); Arizona (Camp Verde and Salt River Bird Reservation); New Mexico (Carlsbad); Texas (Fort Brown); probably Louisiana (Vermilion Bay); and rarely Virginia (James River peninsula). East to rarely Virginia (James River peninsula); South Carolina (Sea Islands and Port Royal); Georgia (Savannah, Blackbeard Island, and St. Marys); Florida (Fernandina, Daytona, New Smyrna, Malabar, St. Lucie, Miami, Key Largo, and Key West); the Bahama Islands (Andros); Cuba (Santiago de Cuba); Haiti (Monte Christi); Porto Rico (Cartagena Lagoon, Mameyes, and Caguas); the Lesser Antilles (Dominica, St. Lucia, Barbados, Carriacou, and Trinidad); British Guiana (Bartica and Georgetown); French Guiana (Cayenne); and Brazil (Mixiana, Marajo, Para, and Bahia). South to Brazil (Bahia and Santa Fe); Bolivia (San Francisco); and Peru (Lima). West to Peru (Lima, Huacho, and Tumbez); Ecuador (Santa Elena, Quito, and Esmeraldas); Galapagos Islands (Albemarle); Colombia (Puerto Berrio); Panama (Panama City); Costa Rica (La Estrella de Cartago, and San Jose); Nicaragua (Escondido River); Salvador (La Libertad); Honduras (Chamelecon); Guatemala (Lake Atitlan); Oaxaca (Tehuantepec City); Lower California (San Jose del Cabo and La Paz); Sonora (Alamos); California (San Clemente Island, Santa Catalina Island, Santa Cruz Island, and Marysville); rarely Oregon (probably Klamath Lake, Elkton, and Portland); probably Washington (Seattle, Clallam Bay, and Port Angeles); and rarely British Columbia (Courtenay).

Spring migration.—Early dates of spring arrival are: North Carolina, Raleigh, April 3, Andrews, April 5, and Weaverville, April 10; Virginia, Miller, April 10, Bowers Hill, April 12, and Camp Eustis, April 14; West Virginia, Waverly, April 4, White Sulphur Springs, April 6, and Lewisburg, April 11; District of Columbia, Washington, April 2; Maryland, Cambridge, April 13, and Sandy Spring, April 18; Delaware, Wilmington, April 27; Pennsylvania, Phillipsburg, March 27, Jeffersonville, March 31, Wallingford, April 1, Beaver, April 2, and Berwyn, April 5; New Jersey, New Brunswick, March 30, Deep Water Point Light, April 14, and Camden, April 16; New York, Rhinebeck, March 20, Locust Grove, April 2, Geneva, April 13, and Branchport, April 15; Connecticut, Canaan, April 14, Portland, April 18, and Fairfield, April 21; Rhode Island, Block Island, April 6; Massachusetts, Dorchester, April 12, Woods Hole, April 13, Holyoke, April 15, and Harvard, April 25; Vermont, Woodstock, April 23, Rutland, April 25, and St. Johnsbury, April 27; New Hampshire, Tilton, April 26, Peterboro, April 28, and Hanover, April 30; Maine, Westbrook, April 14, Ellsworth, April 16, and Portland, April 26; Quebec, Montreal, April 26, and Quebec, May 2; New Brunswick, Scotch Lake, May 2, and Blacksville, May 5; Nova Scotia, Yarmouth, May 4, and Wolfville, May 9; Arkansas, Tillar, March 17, and Monticello, March 22; Tennessee, Knoxville, April 3, and Athens, April 10; Kentucky, Bowling Green, March 29; Missouri, Marshall, March 27; Illinois, Peoria, March 20, Odin, March 24, and Rantoul, April 5; Indiana, Vigo County, March 20, Greencastle, April 1, and Vincennes, April 3; Ohio, Cleveland, March 29, Columbus, April 8, Canton, April 9, and Oberlin, April 10; Michigan, Vermontville, April 6, Ann Arbor, April 13, Battle Creek, April 14, and Grand Rapids, April 19; Ontario, Plover Mills, April 12, Guelph, April 13, and Ottawa, April 16; Iowa, Ottumwa, March 28, Elkader, March 30, and Emmetsburg, April 3; Wisconsin, Milwaukee, March 30, and Shiocton, April 13; Minnesota, Lake City, April 3, Brainerd, April 16, Lanesboro, April 18, and Minneapolis, April 19; Oklahoma, Ponca City, March 31; Kansas, Manhattan, April 5, Lawrence, April 7, Blue Rapids, April 9, and Wichita, April 15; Nebraska, Lincoln, April 18; South Dakota, Sioux Falls, April 10, Forestburg, April 15, and Pitrodie, April 23; Manitoba, Killarney, April 22, Alexander, April 24, and Aweme, April 25; Saskatchewan, Indian Head, May 3, and Eastend, May 7; Mackenzie, Fort Simpson, May 19; Colorado, Greeley, March 18, Mesa County, March 18, and Colorado Springs, April 16; Wyoming, Lake Como, May 2; Idaho, Rathdrum, May 1, and Rupert, May 3; Montana, Billings, April 1, and Columbia Falls, May 4; Alberta, Stony Plain, April 22, Carvel, April 30, and Athabaska Landing, May 6; Yukon, Dawson, May 24; and Alaska, Kuskokwim River, May 12, Craig, May 16, Nulato, May 22, and Forrester Island, May 24.

Late dates of spring departure are: Peru, Rio Perene, March 9, and La Merced, March 23; Brazil, Praia de Cajetuba, April 12, Santarem, April 12, and Matto Grosso, April 1; Venezuela, San Bricene, April 21; Ecuador, Lake Colta, April 5, and San Pedro River, April 11; Colombia, La Concepcion, March 23; Panama, Chiriqui, April 13; Costa Rica, Guapeles, March 5; Guatemala, Puerto Barrios, April 7; Pueblo, Altisco, May 22; Yucatan, Tizimin, May 16; Tamaulipas, Victoria, April 16; Sonora, Hermosillo, April 30; Lower California, La Paz, April 16, and Gardners Laguna, April 23; Lesser Antilles, St. Croix, April 27; Porto Rico, Patillas, May 13, and Cartagena Lagoon, May 23; Haiti, April 11; Cuba, Guantanamo, May 5; Bahama Islands, Andros, April 21, Cay Lobos Light, April 25, and Abaco, April 28; and Florida, Gainesville, May 10, Daytona Beach, May 11, Palma Sola, May 22, St. Marks, May 24, and Pensacola, May 31.

Fall migration.—Early dates of fall arrival are: Florida, Palma Sola, July 7, Pensacola, July 18, Daytona Beach, July 21, and St. Marks, July 21; Porto Rico, Manati, July 9 and Bayamon, July 20; Lesser Antilles, St. Bartholomew, August 3; Lower California, Los Coronados Islands, August 6; Tehuantepec, San Mateo, August 14; British Honduras, Manatee Lagoon, August 16; Guatemala, Duenas, September 2; Nicaragua, Escondido River, July 30, and Bluefields, September 17; Costa Rica, Ujurras de Terraba, September 16; Panama, August 4; Colombia, Fundacion, August 16, Barbacoas, August 30, Cienaga, September 13, and Valle Dupar, September 25; Venezuela, Curaçao, July 27, and Macuto, August 4; Ecuador, Guainche, August 27, Guayaquil, August 28, and Portovelo, September 2; Peru, Trujillo, September 1, and Eten, September 7; and Guiana, Abary Creek, October 6, and Cayenne, October 18.

Late dates of fall departure are: Alaska, Wrangel, October 9, and Kenai River, November 14; Yukon, mouth of Moose River, October 1; Alberta, Red Deer River, September 17; Montana, Missoula, September 17, and Columbia Falls, September 22; Idaho, Priest River, September 19, and Rupert, October 2; Wyoming, Yellowstone Park, September 17; Colorado, Boulder, September 22, Denver, September 23, and Mesa County, October 7; Mackenzie, Great Slave Lake, September 16, and Point Brule, October 1; Saskatchewan, Eastend, September 10; Manitoba, Margaret, October 4, Aweme, October 7, and Killarney, October 18; South Dakota, Wall Lake, October 13, and Forestburg, October 20; Kansas, Topeka, October 11, and Lawrence, October 14; Oklahoma, Copan, October 4, and Caddo, October 16; Minnesota, St. Vincent, October 14, and Lanesboro, November 2; Wisconsin, Madison, October 4, Racine, October 6, and Burlington, October 14; Iowa, Newton, October 25, Sioux City, November 3, and Coralville, November 8; Ontario, Toronto, October 11, London, October 25, and Ottawa, October 30; Michigan, Charity Island, September 28, Ann Arbor, October 9, and Jackson, October 27; Ohio, Huron, October 21, Sandusky, October 24, Cedar Point, October 30, and Columbus, November 7; Indiana, Albion, October 17, Elkhart, October 19, and New Harmony, October 23; Illinois, Chicago, September 29, Maxwell, October 10, and Urbana, October 18; Missouri, St. Louis, October 11, and Jaspar City, October 15; Kentucky, Bowling Green, October 13; Tennessee, Athens, October 11, and Knoxville, October 24; Nova Scotia, Pictou, October 9; New Brunswick, Scotch Lake, October 4; Quebec, Montreal, October 2, and Quebec, October 12; Maine, Portland, October 8, Kennebec County, October 15, and Orono, October 21; Massachusetts, Woods Hole, October 20, Braintree, October 22, and Boston, November 2; Rhode Island, Newport, October 3; Connecticut, Portland, October 15, Hartford, October 19, and Windsor, October 20; New York, New York City, October 13, Collins, October 15, and Highland Falls, October 15; New Jersey, Camden, October 17; Pennsylvania, Renovo, October 18, and Berwyn, October 28; and Maryland, Plummer Island, October 28.