Front matter (continued 4)

Take an instance or two. In the Prayer Book occurs the phrase "Fulfil, O Lord, our desires and petitions." At Sunday lunch a mixed party of people, after attending morning service, were asked how they would render into Esperanto the word "desires." They nearly all plumped for deziraĵo. Now, the Esperanto root for "desire" is dezir-. By adding -o it becomes a noun = the act of desiring, a desire. By adding the suffix -aĵ, and then -o, it becomes concrete = a desire- (i.e. desired) thing, a desire. A reference to the dictionary showed that the English word "desire" has both these meanings, but none of these people had a sufficiently accurate idea of the use of language to realize this. It was only when a gentleman passed his plate for a second helping of beef, and was asked which he expected to be fulfilled—the beef, or his aspiration for beef—that he, under the stimulus of hunger, adopted the rendering dezir‑o, thereby saving at once his bacon and his additional beef.

It is not of course necessary for people to define pedantically to themselves the meaning of every word they use, but surely it must conduce to clear thinking to use a language in which you are perpetually called upon, if you are writing seriously, to make just the mental effort necessary to think what you do mean.

Again, consider the use of prepositions. This is, in nearly all national languages, extremely fluctuating and arbitrary. Take a few English phrases showing the use of the prepositions "at" and "with." "At seven o'clock"; "at any price"; "at all times"; "at the worst"; "let it go at that"; "I should say at a guess," etc. "Come with me"; "write with a pen"; "he came with a rush"; "things are different with us"; "with a twinkle in his eye"; "with God all things are possible," etc. Try to turn these phrases into any language you think you know; the odds are that you will find yourself "up against it pretty badly." The fact is, that prepositions are very frequently used on no logical plan, not at all according to any fixed or universal meaning; all that can be said about them in a given phrase is that they are used there because they are used. To remember their equivalents in other languages hard memory work and much phrase-learning is necessary. In Esperanto all that is necessary is: first, to become clear as to the exact meaning; secondly, to pick the preposition that conveys it. There is no doubt, as the Esperanto prepositions are fixed in sense, on the "one word one meaning" plan. The point is, that there is no memory searching, often so utterly vain, for there are few people indeed who can write a few pages of the most familiar foreign languages without getting their prepositions all wrong, and having "foreigner" stamped large all across their efforts. In Esperanto, provided you have a clear mind and know your grammar, you are right. No arbitrary usage defeats your efforts and makes discouraging jargon of your literary attempts.

This training in clear thought, the first requisite for all good writing, is surely sound practical pedagogics. By the time you can give up conscious word-building in Esperanto, and use words and phrases by rote, you have done enough bracing thinking to teach you caution in the use of the ready-made phrase and horror of the vague word.

Fools make phrases, and wise men shun them. Here is a phrase-free language: need we shun it?

III

comparative tables illustrating labour saved in learning esperanto as contrasted with other languages

(a) Word-building

The following tables are meant to give some idea of the number and variety of different ideas that can be expressed by a single Esperanto root, with the addition of affixes (prefixes and suffixes). By reading the English, French, and German columns downwards, the reader will see how many different roots and periphrases these languages employ in order to express the same ideas.

As the affixes have fixed meanings, they only have to be learnt once for all, and many of them (e.g. -ist, -in, re-) are already familiar. When once acquired, they can be used in unending permutation and combination with different roots and each other. The tables below are by no means exhaustive of what can be done with the roots san- and lern-. They are merely illustrative. By referring to the full table of affixes the reader can go on forming new compounds ad libitum: e.g. san‑o, san‑a, san‑e, san‑i, saneco, sanilo, sanulo, malsane, malsani, saneti, malsaneti, sanadi, eksani, eksaniĝi, saninda, sanindi, sanindulo, sanaĵo, sanaĵero, sanilo, sanigilo, sanigilejo, sanigilujo, sanigilisto, malsanemeco, remalsano, remalsanigo, sanila, malsanulino, sanistinedzo, sanilingo, sanigestro, sanigestrino, sanigema, sanega, sanigega, gesanantoj, saniĝontoj, sanigistido, sanigejano... and so on (kaj tiel plu).

Affix Esperanto English French German

san‑a healthy bien portant gesund

mal- (opposite) mal‑san‑a ill malade krank

ne (not) ne‑san‑a unwell (un peu) souffrant unwohl

-ig (causative) san‑ig‑i to heal guérir heilen

san‑ig‑a salutary salutaire heilsam

re- (again) re‑san‑ig‑a restorative restaurant wiederherstellend

-iĝ (becoming) san‑iĝ-i to be convalescent être convalescent sich erholen

re‑san‑iĝ-a getting well again en train de se rétablir genesend

-ig mal‑san‑ig‑a sickening (transitive) écoeurant (qui rend malade) ekelhaft (krank machend)

-iĝ mal‑san‑iĝ-a sickening (intransitive) languissant siechend

-ist (agent) san‑ig‑ist‑o doctor médecin Arzt

-ej (place) san‑ig‑ej‑o hospital hôpital Krankenhaus

-ul (characteristic) mal‑san‑ul‑o invalid un malade ein Kranker

-ebl (possibility) (mal)-san‑ig‑ebl‑a (in)curable (in)curable (un)heilbar

-ar (collective) mal‑san‑ul‑ar‑o hospital inmates ensemble des malades Gesamtheit der Kranken

ge- (both sexes) ge‑mal‑san‑ul‑ar‑o all the men and women patients les malades hommes et femmes die Kranken beider Geschlechter

-in (feminine) san‑ig‑ist‑in‑o a lady doctor un médecin femme Arztin

-edz (married) san‑ig‑ist‑edz‑in‑o a doctor's wife une femme de médecin Frau des Arztes

Affix Esperanto English French German

lern‑i to learn apprendre lernen

-ig (causative) lern‑ig‑i to teach enseigner lehren

lern‑ig‑a educative éducateur erzieherisch

-ej (place) lernej‑o school école Schule

-ant (pres. part.) lern‑ant‑o pupil élève Schüler

ge- (of both sexes) ge‑lern‑ant‑oj pupils of both sexes élèves des deux sexes Schüler and Schülerinnen

-ar (collective) lern‑ant‑ar‑o class classe Klasse

-an (appertaining) lern‑ej‑an‑o schoolboy écolier Schulknabe

-in (feminine) lern‑ej‑an‑in‑o schoolgirl ecolière Schulmädchen

-estr (chief) lern‑ej‑estr‑o headmaster proviseur Direktor

-ist (agent) lern‑ej‑ist‑o schoolmaster instituteur (professeur) Lehrer

lern‑ej‑ist‑in‑o schoolmistress institutrice Lehrerin

-aĵo (concrete) lern‑aĵ-o (learnt‑stuff) subject matière d'enseignement Lehrstoff

lern‑aĵ-ar‑o curriculum ensemble des matières d'enseignement (Studien)- Laufbahn Schulprogramm

-em (inclination) lern‑em‑a studious appliqué fleissig

mal- (opposite) mal‑lern‑em‑a idle paresseux faul

-ig (causative) lern‑em‑ig‑i to stimulate mettre en train anregen

lern‑ig‑o instruction (act) instruction das Unterrichten

lern‑ig‑aĵ-o instruction (teaching given) enseignement Unterricht

(b) Participles and Auxiliaries

The following table illustrates the perfect simplicity and terseness of the Esperanto verb.

Every tense, active and passive, is formed with never more than two words. Every shade of meaning (continued, potential, etc., action) is expressed by these two words, of which one is the single auxiliary esti (itself conjugated regularly). The double auxiliary—"to be" and "to have"—which infests most modern languages, with all its train of confusing and often illogical distinctions (cf. French je suis allé, but j'ai couru), disappears. Contrast the simplicity of amota with the cumbersome periphrasis about to be loved; or the perfect ease and clearness of vi estus amita with the treble-barrelled German Sie würden geliebt worden sein.

This simplicity of the Esperanto verb is entirely due to its full participial system. There are six participles, present, past, and future active and passive, each complete in one word. The only natural Aryan language (of those commonly studied) that compares with Esperanto in this respect is Greek; and it is precisely the fulness of the Greek participial system that lends to the language a great part of that flexibility which all ages have agreed in admiring in it pre-eminently. Take a page of Plato or any other Greek author, and count the number of participles and note their use. They will be found more numerous and more delicately effective than in other languages. Esperanto can do all this; and it can do it without any of the complexity of form and irregularity that makes the learning of Greek verbs such a hard task. Bearing in mind the three characteristic vowels of the three tenses—present -a, past -i, future -o (common to finite tenses and participles)—the proverbial schoolboy, and the dullest at that, could hardly make the learning of the Esperanto participles last him half an hour.

It would be easy to go on filling page after page with the simplifications effected by Esperanto, but these will not fail to strike the learner after a very brief acquaintance with the language. But attention ought to be drawn to one more particularly clever device—the form of asking questions. An Esperanto statement is converted into a question without any inversion of subject and verb or any change at all, except the addition of the interrogative particle ĉu. In this Esperanto agrees with Japanese. But whereas Japanese adds its particle ka at the end of the sentence, the Esperanto ĉu stands first in its clause. Thus when, speaking Esperanto, you wish to ask a question, you begin by shouting out ĉu, an admirably distinctive monosyllable which cannot be confused with any other word in the language. By this means you get your interlocutor prepared and attending, and you can then frame your question at leisure.

Contrast Esperanto and English in the ease with which they respectively convert a statement into a question.

English : You went—did you go? Esperanto : Vi iris—ĉu vi iris?

This particle may be considered the equivalent of the initial mark of interrogation used in Spanish, and serves to remove all complications in connexion with word order.

Esperanto English French German

amanta loving aimant liebend

aminta having loved ayant aimé der geliebt hat

amonta about to love devant aimer der lieben wird

amata being loved étant aimé der geliebt wird

amita (having been) loved (ayant été) aimé der geliebt worden ist

amota about to be loved devant être aimé der geliebt werden soll

mi estas aminta I have loved j'ai aimé ich habe geliebt

vi estis aminta you had loved vous aviez aimé Sie hatten geliebt

li estas amanta he is loving il est aimant er ist liebend

ŝi estis amata she was being loved elle était en train d'être aimée sie war im Zuge geliebt zu werden

ni estos amintaj we shall have loved nous aurons aimé wir werden geliebt haben

vi estas amataj you are loved vous êtes aimés Sie werden geliebt

ili estas amitaj they have been loved ils ont été aimés sie sind geliebt worden

mi estus aminta I should have loved j'aurais aimé ich würde geliebt haben

vi estus amita you would have been loved vous auriez été aimé Sie würden geliebt worden sein

li estas foririnta he has gone away il s'en est allé er ist fortgegangen

ili estus foririntaj they would have gone away il s'en seraient allés sie würden fortgegangen sein

This chapter on labour-saving may fitly conclude with an estimate of the amount of mere memorizing work to be done in Esperanto. Since this is almost nil for grammar, syntax, and idiom, and since there are no irregularities or exceptions, the memory work is, broadly speaking, reduced to learning the affixes, the table of correlatives, and a certain number of new roots. This number is astonishingly small. Here is an estimate made by Prof. Macloskie, of Princeton, U.S.A.:

Number of roots new to an English boy without Latin, about 600*

" " " " " with " " 300

" " " a college teacher " 100

*i.e. about one-third of the whole number in the Fundamento.

IV

how esperanto can be used as a code language to communicate with persons who have never learnt it

Technically speaking, Esperanto combines the characteristics of an inflected language with those of an agglutinative one. This means that the syllables used as inflexions (-o, -a, -e, -as, -is, -os, -ant-, -int-, -ont-, etc.), being invariable and of universal application, can also be regarded as separate words. And as separate words they all figure in the dictionary, under their initial letters. Thus anything written in Esperanto can be deciphered by the simple process of looking out words and parts of words in the dictionary. For examples, see pieces 1 and 2 in the specimens of Esperanto, and read the Note at the beginning of Part IV. As the Esperanto dictionary only consists of a few pages, it can be easily carried in the pocket-book or waistcoat pocket.

Thus, while to the educated person of Aryan speech Esperanto presents the natural appearance of an ordinary inflected language, one who belongs by speech to another lingual family, or any one who has never heard of Esperanto, can regard every inflected word as a compound of invariable elements. By turning over very few pages he can determine the meaning and use of each element, and therefore, by putting them together, he can arrive at the sense of the compound word, e.g. lav'ist'in'o. Look out lav-, and you find "wash"; look out -ist, and you find it expresses the person who does an action; look out -in, and you find it expresses the feminine; look out -o, and you find it denotes a noun. Put the whole together, and you get "female who does washing, laundress."

Suppose you are going on an ocean voyage, and you expect to be shut up for weeks in a ship with persons of many nationalities. You take with you keys to Esperanto, price one halfpenny each, in various languages. You wish to tackle a Russian. Write your Esperanto sentence clearly and put the paper in his hand. At the same time hand him a Russian key to Esperanto, pointing to the following paragraph (in Russian) on the outside:

"Everything written in the international language can be translated by the help of this vocabulary. If several words together express but a single idea, they are written in one word, but separated by apostrophes; e.g. frat'in'o, though a single idea, is yet composed of three words, which must be looked for separately in the vocabulary."

After he has got over his shock of surprise, your Russian, if a man of ordinary education, will make out your sentence in a very short time by using the key.

As an example Dr. Zamenhof gives the following sentence: "Mi ne sci'as kie mi las'is la baston'o'n: Ĉu vi ĝi'n ne vid'is?" With the vocabulary this sentence will work out as follows:

Mi mi = I I

ne ne = not not

sci'as sci = know do know

as = sign of present tense

kie kie = where where

mi mi = I I

las'is las = leave have left

is = sign of past tense

la la = the the

baston'o'n baston = stick stick

o = sign of a noun

n = sign of objective case

ĉu ĉu = whether, sign of question whether

vi vi = you you

ĝi'n ĝi = it it

n = sign of objective case

ne ne = not not

vid'is vid = leave have seen

is = sign of past tense

It is obvious that no natural language can be used in the same way as a code to be deciphered with a small key.

German French

Ich I je I

weiss white ne not

nicht not sais ?

wo where pas step

ich I où where

den ? j'ai ?

Stock stick laissé ?

gelassen dispassionate la the

habe: property: canne: reed:

haben to have ne not

Sie she, they, you, l'avez ?

ihn ? vous you

nicht not pas step

gesehen ? vu? ?

If your Russian wishes to reply, hand him a Russian-Esperanto vocabulary, pointing to the following paragraph on the outside:

"To express anything by means of this vocabulary, in the international language, look for the words required in the vocabulary itself; and for the terminations necessary to distinguish the grammatical forms, look in the grammatical appendix, under the respective headings of the parts of speech which you desire to express."

The whole of the grammatical structure is explained in a few lines in this appendix, so the grammar can be looked out as easily as the root words.

PART IV

SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO, WITH GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY

Note

The best way of learning Esperanto is to begin at once to read the language. Do not trouble to learn the grammar and list of suffixes by themselves first. All this can be picked up easily in the course of reading.

In the following specimens the first two pieces are marked for beginners. Each part of a word marked off by hyphens is to be looked out separately in the vocabulary. By the time the beginner has read these two pieces carefully in this way he will know the grammar, and have a fair idea of the structure of the language and the use of affixes.

In order to save time in looking out words, and so quicken the process of learning, the English translation of the third piece is given in parallel columns. Therefore in this piece only the principal words, which might be unfamiliar to English readers, are given in the vocabulary. Word-formation and some points of grammar are explained in the notes.

To get a practical grasp of Esperanto, cover the left-hand (Esperanto) column with a piece of paper after reading it, and re-translate the English into Esperanto, using the notes. After half an hour per day of such exercise for two or three weeks, an ordinary educated person will know Esperanto pretty well.

N.B.—It is very important to acquire a correct pronunciation at the start. Study the pronunciation rules, and practise reading aloud before beginning to translate. Read slowly.

I

pronunciation

Vowels

There are no long and short, open and closed, vowels: just five simple, full-sounding vowels, always pronounced the same. English people must be particularly careful to make them sufficiently full.

a as a in Engl. "father."

e " ey " " "they."

i " ee " " "eel."

o " o " " "hole," inclining to o in Engl. "more." (English speakers find it hard to pronounce a true o.)

u " oo " " "moon."

In short, the vowels are as in Italian.

Diphthongs

aj as eye in Engl. "eye."

oj " oy " " "boy."

aŭ " ow " " "cow."

(eŭ " e...w " " "get wet": this sound does not often occur.)

Consonants

These are pronounced as in English, except the following:

c as ts in Engl. "bits."

ĉ " ch " " "church."

g " g " " "give."

ĝ " g " " "gentle."

ĥ " ch " Scotch "loch," or German "ich."

j " y " Engl. "yes."

ĵ " s " " "pleasure."

ŝ " sh " " "shilling."

ŭ " w " " "cow" (only occurs in the diphthongs aŭ and eŭ).

Accent

Always upon the last syllable but one.

Example

The first few lines of piece I in the following specimens may be thus figured for English readers:

Gayseenyóroy—mee noon déeros ahl vee káylkine vórtoyn Ayspayráhntay. Mee kraydahs kay vee ówdos, kay Ayspayráhnto áystahs tray fahtseelah ki baylsónah léengvo.

N.B.—The precise sound of e is between a in "bale" and e in "bell."

II

specimens of esperanto

1. Parol‑ad‑o

Ge‑sinjor‑o‑j—mi nun dir‑os al vi kelk‑a‑j‑n vort‑o‑j‑n Esperant‑e. Mi kred‑as ke vi aŭd‑os, ke Esperant‑o est‑as tre facil‑a kaj bel‑son‑a lingv‑o. Ver‑e, ĝi est‑as tiel facil‑a, sonor‑a kaj simpl‑a, ke oni tut‑e ne hav‑as mal‑facil‑ec‑o‑n por lern‑i ĝi‑n. La lern‑ant‑o‑j pov‑as ordinar‑e kompren‑i, leg‑i, skrib‑i kaj parol‑i ĝin en tre mal‑long‑a temp‑o. La fakt‑o ke Esperant‑o en‑hav‑as tre mal‑mult‑a‑j‑n, vokal‑a‑j‑n son‑o‑j‑n, kaj ke la vokal‑o‑j est‑as ĉiu‑j long‑a‑j kaj plen‑son‑a‑j, est‑ig‑as ĝin mult‑e pli facil‑a ol la ali‑a‑j lingv‑o‑j, ĉiu por aŭ-d‑i, ĉiu por el‑parol‑i.

Mi kred‑as ke mal‑long‑a lern‑ad‑o est‑os sufiĉ-a por vi‑n kompren‑ig‑i, ke la hom‑o‑j de ĉiu‑j naci‑o‑j pov‑as inter‑parol‑i Esperant‑e sen mal‑facil‑ec‑o.

Mi ne de‑ten‑os vi‑n pli long‑e. Fin‑ant‑e, mi las‑os kun vi du fraz‑et‑o‑j‑n: unu‑e, por la ideal‑ist‑o‑j, kiu‑j cel‑as unu frat‑ec‑o‑n inter la popol‑o‑j de ĉiu land‑o, la Esperant‑a‑n deviz‑o‑n—"Dum ni spir‑as ni esper‑as": du‑e, por la hom‑o‑j praktik‑a‑j la praktik‑a‑n konsil‑o‑n—"Lern‑u Esperant‑o‑n."

2. La Mar‑bord‑ist‑o‑j: Alegori‑et‑o

Ĉirkaŭ grand‑a mez‑ter‑a mar‑o viv‑is mult‑a‑j popol‑o‑j. Ili hav‑is mult‑a‑n inter‑a‑n komerc‑o‑n. Ĉar la mar‑o est‑is oft‑e mal‑trankvil‑a kaj ili hav‑is nur mal‑grand‑a‑j‑n ŝip‑o‑j‑n, ili vetur‑is laŭ-long‑e la mar‑bord‑o, neniam perd‑ant‑e la ter‑o‑n el la vid‑o.

Cert‑a hom‑o el‑pens‑is ŝip‑o‑n, kiu ir‑is per vapor‑o. Li dir‑is al la mar‑bord‑ist‑o‑j: "Jen, ni met‑u ni‑a‑n mon‑o‑n kun‑e, kaj ni konstru‑u grand‑a‑j‑n vapor-ŝip‑o‑j‑n. Tiel ni vetur‑os rekt‑e trans la mar‑o unu al ali‑a‑n; kaj ni far‑os pli da komerc‑o en mal‑pli da temp‑o." Sed la mar‑bord‑ist‑o‑j pli am‑is ĉirkaŭ-ir‑i en mal‑grand‑a‑j ŝip‑o‑j, kiel ili kutim‑is. La el‑pens‑int‑o ne hav‑is sufiĉ-e da mon‑o por konstru‑i grand‑a‑n vapor-ŝip‑o‑n, kiu tre mult‑e en‑hav‑os kaj tre rapid‑e vojaĝ-os; tial li dev‑is vetur‑ad‑i en si‑a mez‑grand‑a vapor-ŝip‑o, kiu tamen almenaŭ rekt‑e ir‑is ĉie‑n. Sed la mar‑bord‑ist‑o‑j daŭr‑ig‑is rem‑i kaj vel‑i ĉirkaŭ-e.

3. Nesaĝa Gento: Alegorio An Unwise¹ Race: an Allegory

Malproksime, en nekonata lando, vivis sovaĝa gento. Ili loĝis en la mezo de vasta ebenaĵo, izolata de la ekstera mondo. Unuflanken homo dek tagojn vojaĝante venus al montegaro: aliflanke staris granda lago kaj senlimaj marĉoj. Tiel oni vivadis trankvile laŭ patra kutimo, tute senzorga pri la ago kaj faro de aliaj homgentoj transmontanaj. En somero estis varmege, kaj ĉiu vintro ŝajnis pli malvarma ol la antaŭa; sed la tero estis fruktodona, ĝi donis al ili sufiĉe da greno por manĝi, kaj la riveroj kaj riveretoj plene provizis puran trinkaĵon. Far² away, in an unknown³ land, there lived a savage race, They dwelt in the midst of a vast plain,⁴ cut off from the outer⁵ world. Towards one side⁶ a man journeying⁷ ten days⁸ would come to a big mountain-range⁹; on the other side stood a great lake and boundless¹⁰ swamps. Thus¹¹ they lived¹² quietly after the manner of their fathers, caring nothing¹³ for the way of life¹⁴ of other men beyond the hills. In summer it was very hot,¹⁵ and every winter seemed colder than the last; but the earth was fertile, it gave them enough corn¹⁶ to eat, and the streams and rivers furnished abundance of pure water to drink.¹⁷

¹Unwise. Wise = saĝa; ne = not. ²Far. Near = proksim‑e (e = adverbial ending). To be near = proksimi. Mal- is a prefix denoting the opposite. ³Unknown. To know = koni. Pres. part. pass. -at- Negative = ne. (bona = good; malbona = bad; nebona = not good.) ⁴Plain. Flat = eben‑a. aĵ is a suffix denoting something made from or possessing the quality of. ⁵Outer. Outside (preposition) = ekster. a denotes an adjective. ⁶Towards one side. Side = flank‑o. e denotes an adverb; flanke = "sidely," i.e. at the side, n denotes motion towards. ⁷Journeying. This participial phrase qualifies the verb, venus, like an adverb. In Esperanto the participle therefore takes an e which denotes an adverb. ⁸Ten days, i.e. for the duration of ten days. Duration of time is put in the accusative case. ⁹Big mountain-range. Mountain = mont‑o. eg is a suffix denoting bigness; ar is a suffix denoting a collection. ¹⁰Boundless. Limit = lim‑o. Without = sen. ¹¹Thus. See table of correlatives. ¹²They lived. To live = viv‑i. ad is a suffix denoting continued action. ¹³Caring nothing. Care = zorg‑o. Sen = without. a denotes an adjective. ¹⁴Way of life. Lit. the acting and doing. ¹⁵It was very hot. In such impersonal uses of the adjective, the adverbial form is used. ¹⁶Enough corn, da is used after words of quantity. Sufiĉan grenon would also be right. ¹⁷Water to drink. Lit. drink-stuff, or drink-thing.

Tiel ili vivadis ne malfeliĉe, kaj ilia vivo estis la vivo de la prapatroj, ĉar ili ne sciis kiel ĝin plibonigi. Sed mankis en ilia lando unu aĵo, kaj pro tiu ĉi manko ili multe suferis: en la tuta lando ĉeestis nenia ŝirmilo, ĉu kontraŭ la suno en somero, ĉu por forteni la vintrajn ventojn. Ĉiuflanke la tero estis plata; kaj kvankam la greno kaj ĉiuspecaj legomoj kreskis bone, arboj estis nekonataj. Eĉ la malproksima montaro staris tutnuda; kaj kiam la ventoj blovis forte el ĝiaj neĝoj, la mizeruloj tremetis pro malvarmeco, kaj ne povis eĉ en siaj dometoj komfortiĝi, ĉar la penetranta enfluo de malvarma aero stele eniris ĝis la familian kamenon. Thus they lived not unhappily, and their life was the life of their forefathers, for they knew not how to better¹ it. But in their land one thing² was lacking; and for³ lack of this they suffered greatly: there was⁴ no shelter⁵ in all the land, whether against the sun in summer, or to keep off⁶ the winter winds. On every side the ground was flat; and although corn and all kinds of⁷ vegetables grew well, trees were unknown. Even the distant mountains stood all bare; and when the winds blew strong from amidst their⁸ snows, the poor folk shivered for cold, and could not get comfortable⁹ even in their cottages, for the penetrating draught of the cold air crept¹⁰ right in to the family fireside.

¹Better. Good = bon‑a; better = pli bona; suf. -ig is causative. ²One thing. The concrete suffix -aĵ by itself may be used to express "thing." Of course it takes the substantival ending o. ³For lack. Esperanto is absolutely precise in the use of prepositions according to sense. No idiom. In this it differs from all other languages. Here "for" means "by reason of." ⁴There was. Est‑i = to be; ĉe = at; ĉeesti = to be present. ⁵Shelter. To shelter = ŝirm‑i; il is a suffix expressing instrument. ⁶Keep off. To hold = ten‑i; away = for. ⁷All kinds of. Kind = spec‑o; all = ĉiu. a is adjectival ending. ⁸Their snows. Whose snows? The mountains'. Therefore ĝiaj, referring to montaro. If "their" referred to "winds," it would be siaj. ⁹Get comfortable. Comfort(able) = komfort‑o; suf. iĝ denotes becoming. ¹⁰Crept in. To steal = ŝtel‑i; -e makes it an adverb.

Nu okazis ke certa knabo, pensema preter siaj jaroj, komencis pripensi tiun ĉi mizeran staton. Li vivis kun sia vidvina patrino, kiu havis du infanetojn krom Namezo (tiel nomiĝis la knabo). Ili estis tre malriĉaj, kaj devis senĉese labori por nutri sin mem kaj la infanojn. La vidvino ne havis pli ol kvardek jarojn, sed Namezo rimarkis ke vespere, post la taga laboro, ŝi ŝajnis tute lacega, kaj kelkajn jarojn post la morto de sia edzo ŝi ekmaljuniĝis. Ofte la knabo diris al ŝi, ke ŝi devus pli ripozi, sed ĉiumatene post la nokto ŝi havis mienon tiel same lacegan kiel vespere; kaj ŝi plendis ke la trablovaj ventoj suferigis sin nokte per reŭmatismaj doloroj, kaj somere ŝi ne povis dormi pro varmeco. Tiam la knabo turnis la okulojn ekster sia hejmo kaj rigardis ĉirkaŭen. Li vidis ke ĉiuflanke estis tiel same: la geviroj frue maljuniĝis kaj multe suferis. Li pensis, "Baldaŭ estos al mi ankaŭ simile; la juneco estas mallonga kaj labora, kaj la vivo estas longa kaj ĉagrena." Fine li malgajadis. Now, it happened that a certain boy, thoughtful¹ beyond his years, began to think over this wretched state of things. He lived with his² widowed mother, who had two little children besides Namezo (this was the lad's name³). They were very poor, and were obliged to work hard without stopping to get food for themselves and the children. The widow was not more than forty, but Namezo noticed that of an evening, after the day's work, she seemed quite tired out,⁴ and a few years⁵ after her husband's death she grew old all at once.⁶ Often the boy told her she ought to take more rest, but every morning⁷ she had the same worn-out look as in the evening; and she complained that the winds blowing through of a night plagued⁸ her with⁹ rheumatic pains, and in summer she could not sleep because of the heat. Then the boy turned his eyes outwards from his home and looked around him. He saw that on every side it was the same¹⁰: men and women¹¹ grew old early and suffered much. He thought, "Soon it will be the same with me; youth¹² is short and full of work, and life is long and full of trouble." At last he became gloomy altogether.¹³

¹Thoughtful. To think = pens‑i; suf. -em denotes propensity. ²With his widowed mother, i.e. his own = sia. ³This was his name. To name = nom‑i; with suf. -iĝ = to get named, to be called. ⁴Tired out. Tired = lac‑a; suf. -eg denotes intensity. ⁵A few years. Accusative of time. ⁶She grew old all at once. Young = jun‑a; old = maljuna; suf. -iĝ denotes becoming; prefix ek- denotes beginning, or sudden action. ⁷Every morning = ĉiumatene. "The whole morning" would be la tutan matenon. ⁸Plagued. To suffer = sufer‑i; suf. -ig is causative; suferigi = to cause to suffer. ⁹With... pains. Think of the sense. "With" = by means of. ¹⁰It was the same. Impersonal: use the adverbial form in -e. ¹¹Men and women. Pref. ge- denotes both sexes. ¹²Youth. Young = juna; suf. -ec denotes abstract. ¹³Became gloomy altogether. Gay = gaj‑a; gloomy = malgaja; suf. -ad denotes continuance.

Vintro forpasis, somero alvenis. Unu nokton la knabo estis kuŝanta en sia lito: li estis laboreginta en la kampoj, kaj estis tre laca, sed ju pli li penis ekdormi, des pli li obstine vekiĝadis. La tutan fajran tagon la suno estis malsupren brilinta sur la tegmenton de la dometo, tiel ke la kuŝejo nun similis fornon. Namezo pensis kaj turniĝis, returniĝis kaj repensis; la samaj pensoj, ĉiam ronde revenantaj, iĝis turmento. Fine li ekdormetis, sed la konfuzigaj pensoj, ĉiam la pensoj, ruladis eĉ en lia dormo senkompate tra lia cerbo. Winter passed away, summer came on. One night the boy was lying in his bed: he had been working hard¹ in the fields, and was very tired, but the more he tried to go to sleep² the wider awake he grew. All through the long fiery day the sun had been beating down³ on the roof of the cottage, so that the sleeping-place⁴ was now like an oven. Namezo thought and tossed, tossed and thought again; the same thoughts, always coming round in a circle, became⁵ a torture. At length he fell into a light sleep,⁶ but the distracting⁷ thoughts, always the thoughts, kept rolling⁸ through his brain pitilessly, even in his sleep.

Subite ekfalis sur lin granda paco. Li ŝajnis stari sur monta pinto. Laceco kaj zorgo ne estis plu. Ĉirkaŭe vasta soleco. Li kaj la monto—krom tio ekzistis nenio, kaj li estis kontenta. All at once a great peace fell upon him. He seemed to be standing on a mountain-peak. Weariness⁹ and care were no more. Around vast solitude. He and the mountain—there was nought else, and he was glad.

Al li, tiel lukse enspiranta la freŝan aeron, alvenis fluge blanka birdo. Ĝi aperis, li ne sciis kiel, el la ĉirkaŭanta soleco, kaj metiĝis apud li sur la montan pinton. Ĝi komencis paroli, kaj en lia sonĝo tio ĉi neniel lin surprizis. While he thus breathed in the fresh air with delight, a white bird came flying.¹⁰ It appeared, he knew not how, out of the surrounding solitude,¹¹ and came and perched¹² beside him on the mountain-top. It began to speak, and in his dream this¹³ in no way¹⁴ astonished him.

¹He had been working hard. Pluperfect, lit. he was having worked. Suf. -eg denotes intensity. ²To go to sleep. To sleep = dorm‑i; pref. ek- denotes beginning. ³Down. Above = supr‑e; below = malsupre; n denotes motion. ⁴Sleeping‑place. To lie = kuŝi; suf. -ej denotes place. ⁵Became. Suf. -iĝ denotes becoming; here used as a separate verb. ⁶Fell into a light sleep. To sleep = dorm‑i; suf. -et denotes light sleep; pref. ek- denotes beginning. ⁷Distracting. Confused = konfuz‑a; suf. -ig denotes causation, confusion‑causing. ⁸Kept rolling. To roll = rul‑i; suf. -ad denotes continuance. ⁹Weariness. Tired = lac‑a; suf. -ec denotes abstract. ¹⁰Came flying. To fly = flug‑i; root flug- with adverbial ending -e = flyingly. ¹¹Solitude. Alone = sol‑a; suf. -ec denotes abstract. ¹²Came and perched. The idea of motion is conveyed by the accusative (-n) pinton. ¹³This. Use neuter form in -o, because it stands alone. "This dream" = tiu ĉi sonĝo. ¹⁴In no way. See table of correlatives.

"Homa knabo," diris la birdo, faligante en lian manon semon el sia beko, "prenu tiun ĉi semon: metu ĝin en la teron: prizorgu ĝin, flegu ĝin, kaj flegadu ĝin. Post tempo plenigota leviĝos el tiu ĉi semo kreskaĵo tia, kian la viaj ĝis nun ne vidis. La aliaj homoj nomas ĝin arbon. Ĝi estos granda; kaj en la venontaj jaroj, se oni deve ĝin flegos, naskiĝos el ĝi arbaroj, kiuj estos ŝirmilo por la homaro, kaj por multaj aliaj celoj utilos. Sed flegi ĝin oni devos, ĉar sen homa penado nenio al homoj prosperas." "Mortal¹ boy," said the bird, dropping² a seed into his hand from its beak, "take this seed: put it in the ground: care for it, tend it, and keep tending it. In the fulness of time there will rise³ from this seed such⁵ a growth⁴ as⁵ your people⁶ never yet saw. Other peoples call it a tree. It will be big; and in future⁷ years, if it is duly tended, there will spring from it groves,⁸ which will give shelter to men and women, and will be useful for many other ends. But tended it must be, for without man's striving nothing turns out well for men."

Namezo volis respondi, sed dum li levis la manon por rigardi la semon, estis al li kvazaŭ li turniĝis, la kapo malsupren: la monto malaperis, kaj li falis... falis... falis.... Namezo was about to reply, but as he raised his hand to look at the seed, he seemed to turn⁹ head downwards: the mountain disappeared,¹⁰ and he fell... fell... fell....

¹Mortal. Man = hom‑o; ending -a makes it an adj. ²Dropping. To fall = fal‑i; suf. -ig denotes causing to fall. ³Rise. To raise = lev‑i; suf. -iĝ makes it intransitive. ⁴A growth. To grow = kreski; "grow‑thing" — kresk‑aĵ-o. ⁵Such...as. Tia...kia (= Latin talis...qualis). See table of correlatives. ⁶Your people. You = vi; -a makes it an adj. ⁷Future. Future participle active of ven‑i = about to come. ⁸Groves. Tree = arb‑o; suf. -ar denotes a collection of trees. ⁹To turn. Turn‑i is transitive; suf. -iĝ makes it intransitive. ¹⁰Disappeared. To appear = aper‑i; pref. mal- denotes opposite.

Tiam li estis denove veka en la forna dometo, sed li ne povis sin malhelpi, rigardi sian manon, por vidi ĉu la semo enestis. Semo neestis: kaj la pensoj rekomencis ruladi tra lia cerbo—tamen ne plu la antaŭaj turmentigaj pensoj, sed novaj esperplenaj pensoj, ĉar li kredis, pasie kredis, ke estas ja ia veraĵo en lia sonĝo. Then he was awake again in the oven-like¹ hut, but he could not refrain² from³ looking at his hand, to see if the seed was in it. There was no seed; and the thoughts began to roll through his brain again—yet no longer the old⁴ worrying thoughts, but new thoughts full of hope, for he believed, passionately believed, that there was indeed some truth⁵ in his dream.

Kaj nun la morgaŭa tago eklumiĝis. Li leviĝis kaj iris al sia laboro, kaj tiun ĉi tagon kaj multajn sekvantajn tagojn li laboradis kiel kutime, parolante al neniu pri la sema sonĝo. And now the new day began to dawn. He got up and went about his work, and this day and many succeeding days he went on working as usual, speaking to no one about his dream of the seed.

Sed kiam la tempo de rikolto forpasis, li aĉetis dudektagan nutraĵon kaj donis al la patrino sian restan ŝparaĵon el la rikolta tempo (ĉar vi scias, ke en la sezono de rikolto bona laboristo gajnas pli ol alitempe), dirante ke li devos vojaĝi, kaj forestos dudek tagojn. La patrino miregis, ĉar neniam antaŭe li estis lasinta ŝin eĉ unu tagon; sed li estis bona filo, kaj ŝi kontraŭstaris lin en nenio. But when harvest-time was over, he bought food⁶ enough for twenty days and gave his mother the rest⁷ of his harvest-tide savings⁸ (for you know that in the harvest season a good workman⁹ earns more than at other times), saying that he must¹⁰ go on a journey, and would¹⁰ be away for twenty days. His mother wondered greatly, for he had never left¹¹ her before even for a single day; but he was a good son to her, and she did not thwart him in anything.

¹Oven-like. Oven = forn‑o; ending -a makes it an adjective. ²Refrain. To help = help‑i; to hinder = malhelpi; to hinder himself = malhelpi sin. ³Refrain from looking. In Esperanto use the simplest construction possible, as long as it is clear. The simple infinitive rigardi is clear after malhelpi sin. ⁴The old thoughts. Before = antaŭ; ending -a makes it an adjective. ⁵Truth. Think of the sense. Here truth = "true‑thing," so use suf. -aĵ. "Truth" = abstract virtue = vereco. ⁶Food. To feed = nutr‑i; suf. -aĵ denotes stuff. ⁷The rest of. The rest = rest‑o; ending -a makes it an adjective = remaining. ⁸Savings. To save up = ŝpar‑i; ŝpar‑aĵ-o = save‑thing (i.e. saved thing). ⁹Workman. To work = labor‑i; suf. -ist denotes the agent. ¹⁰He must go... and would be away. Esperanto syntax is perfectly simple. Just use the tense which the speaker would use, here the future; or any tense, so long as the meaning is clear. ¹¹He had left. Pluperfect = "he was having left," esti with past part. active. Li estis lasita would mean "he had been left."

Li forvojaĝis do, kaj post kvin tagoj li ekvidis malproksime sur la horizonto blankan nubon, kiu dum la morgaŭa tago montriĝis kiel monta pinto. Namezo salutis ĝin, kaj de tiu momento, sen ia dubo, direktis sian iron tra la ebenaĵo ĉiam al ĝi. So he journeyed forth, and in five days he began to see far off on the horizon a white cloud, which turned out¹ in the course of the next day to be a mountain-peak. Namezo saluted it, and from that moment, without any doubt, bent his course² across the plain constantly towards it.

Kiam li alvenis piedon de la montoj, la deka tago jam finiĝis. Efektive li estis grave trompiĝinta pri la distanco. Neniam antaŭe li vidis monton, kaj tial, kiam li ekvidis la pinton meze de la vojaĝo, li kredis ke li ĵus alvenas, kaj marŝis pli malrapide. Tri tagojn li pensis ĉiumatene, "Mi estos hodiaŭ vespere ĉe la montpiedo; morgaŭ mi suprenrampos ĝis la pinton." Sed nun li sciis, ke li estas malfrua. Li formanĝis jam la duonon de sia provizaĵo, kaj dum la lastaj mejloj li ekvidis ke lia pinto estas parto de vasta senlima montegaro, ke ĝi ankoraŭ malproksimas kaj li tute ne tiel facile supreniros. Li kalkulis ke almenaŭ oktaga nutraĵo estos necesa por reiri hejmen de la piedo de la montaro, kaj tiom li tie enterigis por la returna vojaĝo. Sekve restis nur dutaga manĝaĵo por la suprena kaj malsuprena montiro. When he came to the foot³ of the mountains, the tenth⁴ day was already drawing to an end. Indeed, Namezo had been greatly mistaken⁵ in the distance. He had never seen a mountain before, and so, when he caught sight of the peak half-way, he thought he was just getting there, and walked slower. For three days he thought every morning, "I shall be at the foot of the mountains this evening; to-morrow I'll climb⁶ to the top." But now he knew that he was late.⁷ He had already eaten up half⁸ of his provisions,⁹ and for the last few miles he was beginning to see that his peak was part of a boundless mountain-range, that it was still far off and he would by no means get up so easily. He calculated that at least eight days' food would be needed to get home from the foot of the mountain-range, and he buried¹⁰ that amount¹¹ there for the return journey. Thus only two days' provision was left for the ascent and descent of the mountain.

¹Turned out to be. To show = montr‑i; with suf. -iĝ, montriĝ-i = to show itself, to become shown. ²His course. To go = ir‑i; ending -o makes it a substantive = a going. ³To the foot. Motion; use the -n case. ⁴Tenth. Ten = dek; to form the ordinal numbers add -a to the cardinal. ⁵Mistaken. To deceive = tromp‑i; suf. -iĝ makes it intransitive. ⁶Climb. Supr‑a, -e, -en = upper, above, upwards. ⁷Late. Early = fru‑a; pref. mal- denotes opposite. ⁸Half. Two = du; suf. -on denotes fractions. cf. kvarono = quarter. ⁹Provisions. Provide‑stuff (i.e. provided stuff). ¹⁰Buried. Earth = ter‑o; in = en; suf. -ig denotes causing to be. ¹¹That amount. Tiom. See table of correlatives.

Tre frue do li ekiris la dekunuan tagon, kaj penadis ĉiutage supren. Vespere li vidis ke li ankoraŭ havas plenan tagvojaĝon ĝis la pinton, kaj tiel li devos tre ŝpareme uzi sian restan provizaĵon. La dekdua tago estis tre doloriga. La monto fariĝis kruta; li devis rapidi; kaj li terure malsatis pro ekmankanta manĝaĵo. Malgraŭ ĉio li alvenis montpinton je la noktiĝo. La subita ekscito, kune kun la laceco kaj malsato, estis tro: en la momenta de sukceso li falis en sveno sur la teron. Very early, then, on the eleventh¹ day he set out, and toiled the whole day upwards. In the evening he saw that he still had a full day's journey to the top, and so he must be very sparing² in the use of his remaining stores. The twelfth day was very painful.³ The mountain grew⁴ steep; he had to press on; and he was terribly hungry,⁵ as the food was beginning to give out. In spite of all, he reached the top at nightfall.⁶ The sudden excitement, with his weariness and hunger, was too much: in the moment of success he fell to the ground in a swoon.

Jen, dum li kuŝis senkonscie, aperis la duan fojon la sama vidaĵo. Birdo blanka alflugis, metis en lian manon semon, kaj diris la samajn vortojn. Denove li levis la manon, kaj denove li ŝajnis renversiĝi, kaj falis... falis... falis.... And lo! as he lay unconscious, there appeared to him for the second time the same vision.⁷ A white bird flew up, put a seed into his hand, and said the same words. Again he raised his hand, and again he seemed to turn over, and fell... fell... fell....

Rekonsciiĝinte, li trovis sin kuŝanta trankvile apud la loko mem, kie li enterigis sian returnan provizaĵon antaŭ la supreniro. Li kuŝis sur dolĉa herbo, kaj sentis sin korpe tute mallacigata, kaj granda paco regis en lia animo. Tuj kiam li malfermis la okulojn, li rigardis en sian manon, kaj tiun ĉi fojon la semo enestis. When he came to himself,⁸ he was lying quietly in the very place where he had buried his food for the home journey before the ascent. He was lying on soft grass, and his body felt free from its tiredness,⁹ and in his soul reigned a great peace. As soon as he opened¹⁰ his eyes, he looked in his hand, and this time the seed was there.

¹Eleven = dek‑unu; add -a to make the ordinal. 20 = dudek. ²Sparing. To save = ŝpar‑i; suf. -em denotes propensity. ³Painful. Pain = dolor‑o; suf. -ig denotes causation; ending -a makes it an adjective. ⁴Grew. To make = far‑i; suf. -iĝ denotes becoming made, growing. ⁵Hungry. Satisfied = sat‑a; pref. mal- denotes the opposite. To be hungry = mal‑sat‑i. ⁶Nightfall. Night = nokt‑o; suf. -iĝ denotes becoming. ⁷Vision. See(n)-thing; vid‑i = to see; with suffix -aĵ. ⁸When he came to himself. Conscious = konsci‑a; prefix re- denotes back again; suffix -iĝ denotes becoming. ⁹Free from tiredness. Tired = lac‑a; mal- denotes opposite; -ig denotes causing to be. ¹⁰Opened. To shut = ferm‑i; to open = malfermi.

Longa, labora kaj preskaŭ sennutra malsupreniro de la montpinto jam ne necesis, kaj la hejmvojaĝo trans la ebenaĵo prosperis, tiel ke Namezo staris baldaŭ ree en la patrina dometo. La vilaĝanoj kunvenis amase kaj multe demandis pri lia vojaĝo, ĉar neniu el ili estis iam tiel malproksimen foririnta de la hejmo. Namezo ĉion rakontis, kaj montris la semon kiun li devos planti. La najbaroj komence kredis, ke li volas mirigi ilin, kiel la vojaĝistoj amas fari, kaj ili ridis pri liaj rakontaĵoj. Sed, kiam ili vidis ke li estis serioza, ili ekkoleriĝis kaj volis forpreni lian semon kaj detrui ĝin. "'Arbo' estas sensencaĵo," ili diris; "ne povas ekzisti alia kreskaĵo, krom la rikoltoj kaj la legomoj kiujn ni kaj niaj patroj jam ĉiam kreskigis. Estas neeble ke io alia kresku kaj iĝu pli granda." Kaj unuj diris ke li estas vana sonĝisto, kaj aliaj ke li frenezas. Sed lia patrino kuraĝigis lin. A long, laborious descent from the mountain-top almost without food was now no longer needful, and on the home journey across the plain all went well, so that Namezo soon stood again in his mother's¹ cottage. The villagers flocked in crowds² and asked many questions about his journey, for none of them had ever been so far from home. Namezo told them everything, and showed the seed which he was to plant. At first the neighbours thought he was trying to astonish³ them, as travellers are wont to do, and they laughed at his tales. But when they saw that he was in earnest, they got in a rage,⁴ and wanted to take away his seed and destroy it. "A 'tree' is foolishness,"⁵ they said; "no other plant can exist, except the crops and vegetables that we and our fathers have always grown. It is impossible for anything else to grow and become⁶ bigger than they." And some said that he was an idle dreamer, and others that he was mad. But his mother encouraged him.

¹Mother's. Father = patr‑o; suf. -in denotes feminine; ending -a makes it an adjective. ²In crowds. Crowd = amas‑o; ending -e makes it an adverb. ³Astonish. To wonder = mir‑i; suf. -ig makes it transitive. ⁴Got in a rage. Anger = koler‑o; pref. ek- denotes beginning; suf. -iĝ denotes becoming. ⁵Foolishness. Sense = senc‑o; without = sen; suf. -aĵ = without‑sense‑stuff. ⁶Become. Suf. -iĝ is here used alone as a verb = to become.

Kaj Namezo timis por sia semo, kaj pripensis kiel li povos savi ĝin de la najbaroj kiam ĝi ekkreskos. Kaj li eliris el la vilaĝo nokte, kaj plantis ĝin malproksime de ĉiuj domoj, apud rivereto en malleviĝo de la tero, kie oni ĝin ne vidos ĝis ĝi estos tre granda. Kaj komence li iris tien nur nokte; sed, ĉar li ne parolis plu pri sia semo, la vilaĝanoj forgesis la aferon, tiel ke li povis eliri el la vilaĝo vespere post sia taglaboro kiam li volis, kaj neniu zorgis pri tio, kien li iras. Sed li ne kuraĝis ĝin transplanti apud sian dometon, timante ke oni difektu ĝin aŭ ŝerce aŭ malice, kaj sekve restis por li la granda laborado iri, kiam li estis jam laca, malproksimen por flegi ĝin. And Namezo feared for his seed, and thought how he could save it from the neighbours when it began to grow up. And he went out of the village by night, and planted it far away from all the houses, by a little stream in a hollow¹ of the ground, where it would not be seen till it grew very big. And at first he went there only by night; but, as he said no more about his seed, the villagers forgot the matter, so that he could go out of the village in the evenings after his day's work whenever he liked, and nobody troubled about where he was going.² But he did not dare to transplant it to his own cottage, fearing that they would damage it in jest or malice, and so the hard work remained for him of going a long way to look after it, when he was already tired.

¹A hollow. To raise = lev‑i; suf -iĝ makes it intransitive; pref. mal- denotes the opposite; ending -o makes it a noun. ²Where he was going. "Where" here = "whither," therefore add -n, which denotes motion.

Jaroj forpasadis: Namezo grandiĝis, sed lia kreskaĵo ne volis grandiĝi. Multfoje li malesperis, vidante ke ĝi kvazaŭ ne kreskadis plu, aŭ ke ĝi en somero havis velkan mienon. Multajn vintrojn ĝi preskaŭ mortis per frosto. Sed li persistis, kaj ĉiuokaze li provis ian novan flegon, ĉar neniam antaŭe en la tuta lando oni kreskigis tielan plantaĵon. Iatempe li metis sterkon: tiam li subdrenis la teron, ĉirkaŭhakis la branĉetojn, aŭ ŝirmis la burĝonojn kontraŭ la ventoj. Ree, vidante ke malgraŭ ĉio la arbeto ne prosperis, li pretigis novan teraĵon kaj transplantis ĝin, antaŭe enpluginte alispecan teron. Li eksperimentis per seka, poste per malseka, subtero: unuvorte, li senĉese penadis, diversigante konstante la kondiĉojn ĝis li ĝuste trafos. Fine, kiam li jam de longe estis plenaĝa, lia deziro plenumiĝis: tie, apud la rivereto staris granda belkreska arbo. Years passed away: Namezo grew up,¹ but his plant would not grow up too. Many a time he despaired,² seeing that it seemed as though it had given up growing, or that it had a faded look in summer. Many winters it nearly died of the frosts. But he persevered, and in every case³ he tried some new treatment, for never before in the whole land had any one grown⁴ such a plant. At one time he would put on manure; then he tried draining the ground, pruning the shoots, or protecting the buds against the winds. Again, seeing that in spite of all the little tree did not flourish, he prepared⁵ a new soil-bed and transplanted it, having first ploughed in a different kind of earth. He experimented with dry, and then with damp, sub-soil: in short, he toiled ceaselessly, constantly varying⁶ the conditions till he should hit off the right thing. At last, when he had long come to be a grown man,⁷ his desire was fulfilled:⁸ there beside the stream stood a fine big tree.

¹Grew up. Big = grand‑a; suf. -iĝ denotes becoming. ²Despaired. To hope = esper‑i; pref. mal- denotes opposite. ³In every case. To happen = okaz‑i; any or all = ĉiu; ending -e makes it adverbial = "any‑happening‑ly," i.e. whatever happened. ⁴Grown. To grow (intrans.) = kresk‑i; suf. -ig makes it transitive. ⁵Prepared. Ready = pret‑a; suf. -ig = to make ready. ⁶Varying. Diverse = divers‑a; suf. -ig = to render diverse. ⁷A grown man. Age = aĝ-o; full = plen‑a; ending -a denotes adj. ⁸Was fulfilled. To fulfil = plenum‑i; -iĝ denotes becoming.

En somero, kiam la folioj estis plenaj, li kondukis tien kelkajn amikojn, kaj ili ĝojis sidantaj vespere sub la freŝa ombro. En aŭtuno ili kolektis la semujojn, portis ilin en la vilaĝon, kaj penis decidigi la vilaĝanojn planti la semaron apud siaj dometoj, por havi ŝirmilon. Sed la vilaĝanoj ne volis. In summer, when it was in full leaf, he took his friends there, and they rejoiced sitting in the cool shade at evening. In autumn they collected the pods,¹ took them to the village, and tried to get the villagers to plant the seed by their homes, to give them shelter. But the villagers would not have them.

Unu diris, "Arbo estas neebla."* One said, "A tree is impossible."²

Kaj Namezo respondis, "Arbo ekzistas. Venu kun mi, kaj mi vidigos vin." And Namezo answered, "A tree exists. Come with me, and I will show³ you."

Sed li diris, "Arbo estas neebla." But he said, "A tree is impossible."

*For this and the following objections of the villagers, compare Part I., chap. xv. ¹Pods. Seed = sem‑o; suf. -uj denotes that which contains. ²Impossible. Suf. -ebl denotes possibility, and can, like all suffixes, be used by itself. Ne‑ebl‑a = not possible. ³Show. To see = vid‑i; with suf. -ig = to cause to see.

Ree Namezo diris, "Se vi nur tiom da peno faros, kiom necesas por eliri el la vilaĝo, mi montros al vi arbon, sub kiu miaj amikoj kaj mi ŝirmiĝas ĉiuvespere. Venu nur kaj provu se ĝi plaĉos ankaŭ al vi." Again Namezo said, "If you will only take as much trouble¹ as is necessary to go out of the village, I will show you a tree, under which my friends and I take shelter every evening. Only just come and try whether it pleases you also."

Sed li diris, "Mi ne volas eliri. Arbo estas neebla." But he said, "I will not go out. A tree is impossible."

Alia diris, "Mi vidis vian arbon, kaj mi trovas ĝin tute senutila." Another said, "I have seen your tree, and I consider it perfectly useless."

Kaj Namezo respondis, "Kial?" And Namezo answered, "Why?"

Kaj li diris, "Niaj patroj ne havis arbon." And he said, "Our fathers had no trees."

Namezo diris, "Niaj patroj suferis pro manko de ŝirmado." Namezo said, "Our fathers suffered from want of shelter."

Kaj li diris, "Tial mi ankaŭ suferos." And he said, "Therefore I too will suffer."

Alia diris, "Ni havas ja sufiĉe da kreskaĵoj. Niaj rikoltoj kaj legomoj provizas nutraĵon, kaj la belaj floroj ĉarmas la okulon. Alia kreskaĵo estus superflua." Another said, "We have enough plants. Our crops and vegetables provide food, and our gay flowers charm the eye. Another growing thing would be superfluous."

¹Trouble. To try = pen‑i; ending -o makes it a substantive = trying, effort.

Kaj Namezo respondis, "Bone. Niaj ĝisnunaj kreskaĵoj plenumas la ĉefajn bezonojn de la homaro. Manĝo kaj certa ornamo estas necesaĵoj por la homa naturo, kaj por tiuj ĉi uzoj ni havas rikoltojn kaj florojn. Sed la vivo estus pli plezura se ni estus pli bone ŝirmataj. Tiun ĉi apartan servon prezentas la arboj, kaj ni povos ĝui ĝin sen fordoni la profiton de floro kaj rikolto. Ne, plue, niaj rikoltoj, ŝirmataj de la montaj ventoj, pli facile maturiĝos: tiel ni havos pli da tempo por la plezurigaj laboroj, kaj la floroj estos ankoraŭ pli belaj." And Namezo answered, "Good. The plants we have already¹ fulfil the chief needs of mankind. Food and some ornament are necessities² for human nature, and for these uses we have the crops and flowers. But life would be pleasanter if we were better sheltered. This special service³ is done by the trees, and we can enjoy it without foregoing the advantage of flower and crop. Nay, more, our crops, sheltered from the winds that blow from the mountains, will ripen⁴ more easily: thus we shall have more time for the work that brings pleasure,⁵ and the flowers will be even more lovely."

Kaj li diris, "Tagmeze, kiam la suno brilas, mi kuŝas inter la altstaranta greno. Tiu ĉi ŝirmilo sufiĉas. Ni havas sufiĉe da kreskaĵoj. Arbo ne estas kreskaĵo; ĝi estas monstro. Iru diablon!" And he said, "At noon,⁶ when the sun shines warm, I lie amidst the deep standing corn. This shelter is enough. We have plants enough. A tree is not a plant; it is a monster. Go to the devil!"

Kaj Namezo iris al la diablo, ĉar li estis preta iri kien ajn, plivole ol daŭrigi paroli kun la vilaĝanoj. And Namezo went to the devil, for he was ready to go anywhere, rather than continue to talk to the villagers.

Li diris, "Via diabla Moŝto, la vilaĝanoj naŭzadas min, kaj mi estas laca je mia vivo. Faru el mi kion vi volas." He said, "Your devilish Majesty, the villagers make me sick,⁷ and I am tired of⁸ my life. Do with me as you will."

¹The plants we have already. Lit. our till-now plants. ²necessities. Necessary = neces‑a: with suf. -aĵ = necessary things. ³Service. To serve = serv‑i; ending -o makes it a substantive. ⁴Ripen. Ripe = matur‑a; suf. -iĝ denotes becoming. ⁵Work that brings pleasure. Pleasure = plezur‑o; suf. -ig denotes causing to be. ⁶Noon. Day = tag‑o; middle = mez‑o; ending -e is adverbial. ⁷Make me sick. To make sick = naŭz‑i; -ad denotes continuation. ⁸Tired of. The preposition je is used when no other preposition exactly fits.

Respondis la diablo, "Mi ne povas ion fari por vi, mizerulo! La vilaĝanoj estas venkintaj min; kaj mi retiras min de la aferoj. Neniam, eĉ en miaj plej eltrovemaj tagoj, mi elpensis tiel mortigan turmenton por progresema homo, kiel sukcesi en la produkto de profitiga uzilo, kaj tiam devi penadi, por igi siajn kunulojn alpreni ĝin. Reiru al la vilaĝanoj kaj donu al ili miajn respektplenajn komplimentojn." The devil made answer, "I can do nothing for you, poor wretch!¹ The villagers have beaten me; and I am retiring from business. Never, even in my most ingenious² days, did I invent such a deadly³ torment for a progressive man, as to succeed in producing a beneficial⁴ device, and then have to keep striving to get his fellows⁵ to adopt it. Go back again to the villagers, and give them my respectful compliments."

Pezakore, Namezo reiris hejmen, kaj envoje li renkontis vilaĝanaron portantan hakilojn. Li demandis kial ili portas hakilojn. Heavy at heart, Namezo went home again, and on the way he fell in with a band of villagers⁶ carrying axes.⁷ He asked why they were carrying axes.

"Por dehaki la arbon," respondis la grupestro; "ni timas ke ĝi etendiĝos sur la tutan landon. Se oni prenos la fruktetojn kaj plantos ilin apud sia loĝejo, la arboj entrudos sin en la kampojn kaj en la florbedojn, kaj elpuŝos la aliajn kreskaĵojn." "To cut down the tree," replied the leader of the band⁸; "we are afraid that it will spread and fill the whole land. If the people take the fruits and plant them at their own homes,⁹ trees will encroach upon the fields and upon the flower-beds, and will drive out the other plants."

¹Wretch. Misery = miser‑o; suf. -ul denotes having the quality of. ²Ingenious. To find = trov‑i; out = el; suf. -em denotes propensity or aptitude. ³Deadly. To die = mort‑i; suf. -ig denotes to cause to die. ⁴Beneficial. Profit‑causing; suf. -ig. ⁵Fellows. With = kun; suf. -ul denotes state or quality. ⁶A band of villagers. Suf. -ar denotes a collection. ⁷Axes. To hew = hak‑i; suf. -il denotes instrument. ⁸Leader of the band. Band = grup‑o; suf. -estr enotes chief of. ⁹Homes. To dwell = loĝ-i; suf. -ej denotes place.

"Sed vi tute ne devos planti la arbojn en la kampoj kaj florbedoj," diris Namezo. La arboj havas utilon diferencan de la aliaj kreskaĵoj kaj oni plantos ilin en aparta loko. Se okaze arbo altrudos sin inter la rikoltojn, oni elradikos ĝin tuj, antaŭ ol ĝi grandiĝos." "But you must not plant the trees in the fields and flower-beds," said Namezo. "Trees have a different use from other plants, and they will be planted in quite separate places. If by chance a tree pushes itself in amongst the crops, it will be rooted out at once, before it gets big."

"Ne, arbo estas danĝera," kriis la hakilistoj; kaj Namezo devis alvoki siajn amikojn por defendi la arbon. "No, trees are dangerous," cried the men with the axes;¹ and Namezo had to call up his friends to defend the tree.

Poste Namezo iris hejmen kaj enfermis sin en sia dometo. Lia patrino estis jam de longe morta, kaj la gefratoj jam edziĝis, kaj li vivadis sole. Sed li nun ne povis eĉ resti sola. Venis la saĝuloj de la vilaĝo, kaj ili kriadis tra la fenestro, "Arbo estas bona ideo, sed vi kreskigis vian arbon malprave. Lasu nin do flegi ĝin laŭ nia bontrovo, kaj ni baldaŭ plibonigos ĝin, tiel ke ĝi estos vere alpreninda arbo." After this Namezo went home and shut himself up in his cottage. His mother was by this time long dead, and his brother and sister² were now married,³ and he lived all alone. But now he could not even remain alone. The wise men of the village came along, and they kept shouting through the window, "Trees are a good idea, but you have grown your tree the wrong way. So let us look after it as we see fit, and we'll soon improve⁴ it, so that it shall be a tree really fit for us to take to."⁵

¹The men with the axes. To hew = hak‑i; -il denotes instrument; -ist denotes agent. ²Brother and sister. Prefix ge- denotes both sexes. ³Were married. Husband (wife) = edz (in) -o; suffix -iĝ denotes becoming. ⁴Improve. Good = bon‑a; more = pli; -ig denotes causation. ⁵Fit to take to. To take = pren‑i; to = al; -ind denotes worthy.

Kaj al ili Namezo respondis nenion. Li sciis ke li estis doninta grandan parton de sia vivo por eksperimenti kaj estis produktinta belkreskan arbon, dum la lertuloj nun estis vidantaj arbon je la unua fojo, kaj tute malsciis la malfacilecojn kiujn oni devas venki, kaj eĉ ne komprenis la demandon kiun ili entreprenis solvi. Sed li sciis ankaŭ ke tiela konsidero estas por lertuloj malpli ol nenio. Estis malutile argumenti kun ili, ĉar ili ne sciis ke ili ne scias, kaj tio ĉi estas plej malfacila lerni. Tial li lasis ilin paroladi, kaj flegis sian arbon kiel antaŭe. "Ĉar," li diris al si mem, "kiam la arbo estos disvastiĝinta kaj multobliĝinta laŭspece tra la lando, per la grada sperto de multaj homoj fariĝos arba scienco, kaj tial ni fine ellernos la plej bonan flegmanieron." Ankaŭ li pensis, "la diablo estis prava: la diablo estas lertulo." And to these Namezo answered nothing. He knew that he had given a great part of his life to making experiment and had produced a well-grown tree, while the clever men were now seeing a tree for the first time, and were wholly ignorant of the difficulties that had to be overcome, and did not even understand the question they were undertaking to solve. But he also knew that to clever men such a consideration is less than nothing. It was no good to argue with them, for they did not know that they did not know, and this is the hardest thing to learn. So he let them keep on talking, and tended his tree as before. "For," said he to himself, "when the tree has spread and multiplied after its kind throughout the land, from many men's gradual experience there will arise a science of trees, and thus we shall in the end find out the best way of tending them." Also he thought, "The devil was right: the devil is a clever man."

Iom poste alvenis en la vilaĝon homoj el aliaj lokoj, kunportantaj diversajn semojn. Ĉiu el ili laŭdis sian propran semon, dirante ke li estas kreskiginta belan arbon el tia semo, kaj postulante ke la vilaĝanoj plantu nur liajn semojn. Tiam iuj diris, "Ni metu ĉiujn la diversajn semojn kunen, kaj ni kreskigu el ili unu bonan arbon." Kaj tiuj ĉi petis Namezon ke li neniigu sian arbon kaj pistu ĝiajn semojn kaj almiksu ilin en la kunmetatan semaĵon, por ke unu bona arbo elkresku. Now, some time after there arrived in the village men from other places, bringing with them various seeds. Each of them praised his own seed, telling how he had grown a fine tree from such seed, and urging the villagers to plant his seeds only. Then certain of them said, "Let us put all the divers seeds together, and let us grow from them one good tree." And these begged Namezo to destroy¹ his own tree and pound its seeds and stir them into the compound seedstuff, that one good tree might grow out of it.

Tiel ili babiladis kaj bataladis inter si; kaj ili ĉirkaŭ iradis en la vilaĝo, montrante modelojn de siaj arboj kaj pruvante, ĉiu ke la sia estas la plej bona. Kaj fine la vilaĝanoj enuiĝis kaj denove volis dehaki ĉiun kaj ĉies arbon. Thus they babbled and kept quarrelling among themselves; and they went round about in the village showing models of their trees and proving each that his own was the best. And at last the villagers grew weary of it, and wanted again to hew down every tree, no matter to whom it belonged.²

¹Destroy. Nothing = neni‑o; suf. -ig denotes causation. ²No matter to whom it belonged. Lit. every one's.

Sed Namezo kaj liaj amikoj havis jam du aŭ tri But Namezo and his friends had by this time two or three big trees, and up to this day they have succeeded in defending them against the villagers' attacks. And always, when the weather is very hot, they sit under their trees in the evening and enjoy the coolness. Yet have they only half profit by them, for the villagers forbid them to plant any tree in the village, and so the tree people have to walk a long way each time and have to make special visits to their trees, instead of having them at their doors.

Kaj la plej granda parto de la vilaĝanoj, malgraŭ ke oni povas facile piediri al la arboj, diras ankoraŭ, "Arbo estas neebla." And the greater part of the villagers, though the trees are within a walk, still say, "Trees are impossible."

Kaj la diablo ridas. And the devil laughs.

III

grammar

1. There is one definite article, la, invariable. There is no indefinite article.

2. Nouns always end in -o. Ex. patro = father.

3. Adjectives always end in -a. Ex. patra = paternal.

4. The plural of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns (except only the personal pronouns) ends in j. Ex. patroj = fathers; bonaj patroj = good fathers.

5. The accusative (objective) case always ends in -n. Ex. Mi amas mian bonan patron = I love my good father. Ni amas niajn bonajn patrojn = we love our good fathers.

6. Adverbs always end in -e. Ex. bone = well; patre = paternally. (There are a few non-derived adverbs without the ending -e, as jam, ankaŭ, tiel, kiel).

7. The personal pronouns are:

mi = I ŝi = she ni = we

vi = you ĝi = it vi = you

li = he oni = one ili = they

Also a reflexive pronoun, si, which always refers to the subject of its own clause.

All these pronouns form the accusative case by adding -n.

8. The verb has no separate ending for person or number.

The present ends in -as. Ex. mi amas = I love.

The past ends in -is. Ex. vi amis = you loved.

The future ends in -os. Ex. li amos = he will love.

The conditional ends in -us. Ex. ni amus = we should love.

The imperative ends in -u. Ex. amu = love! ni amu = let us love. This form also serves for subjunctive. Ex. Dio ordonas ke ni amu unu la alian = God commands us to love one another.

The infinitive ends in -i. Ex. ami = to love.

There are three active participles.

The present participle active is formed by -ant. Ex. amanta = loving; amanto = a lover.

The past participle active is formed by -int. Ex. aminta = having loved; la skribinto = the author (lit. the man who has written).

The future participle active is formed by -ont. Ex. amonta = being about to love.

There are three passive participles.

The present participle passive is formed by -at. Ex. amata = being loved.

The past participle passive is formed by -it. Ex. amita = having been loved.

The future participle passive is formed by -ot. Ex. amota = being about to be loved.

All compound tenses, as well as the passive voice, are formed by the verb esti (to be) with a participle. Compound tenses are employed only when the simple forms are inadequate. Ex. mi estas aminta = I have loved (lit. I am having loved); vi estis aminta = you had loved (lit. you were having loved); ili estas amataj = they are loved; ŝi estas amita = she has been loved; ni estis amitaj = we had been loved; ili estos amintaj = they will have loved; ŝi estus aminta = she would have loved; mi estus amita = I should have been loved.

IV

list of affixes

I. Prefixes

bo- denotes relation by marriage: bopatro = father-in-law.

dis- denotes dissemination, division: dismeti = to put apart, about, in pieces.

ek- denotes sudden action or beginning: ekdormi = to fall asleep; ekiri = to start.

ge- denotes both sexes: gepatroj = parents; geviroj = men and women.

mal- denotes the opposite: bona = good; malbona = bad.

re- denotes back, again: repagi = to repay; rekomenci = to begin again.

II. Suffixes

-ad denotes continuation: penadi = to keep striving, to make continued effort.

-aĵ denotes something concrete, made of the material, or possessing the qualities of the root to which it is attached: bovo = ox; bovaĵo = beef; okazi = to happen; okazaĵoj = happenings, events. (For English speakers a good rule is to add "thing" or "stuff" to the English word; propra = one's own, propraĵo = own-thing, property; vidindaĵoj = see-worthy-things, notable sights. N.B.: -aĵ added to transitive verbal stems generally has a passive sense: tondi = to clip, tondaĵo = clipped-thing, clippings; whereas tondilo = clipping-thing, shears.) See Zamenhof's explanation of -aĵ, La Revuo, Vol. I., No. 8 (April), pp. 374–5.

-an denotes an inhabitant, member, or partisan: urbano = a town-dweller; Kristano = a Christian.

-ar denotes a collection: vortaro = a dictionary; arbaro = a forest; homaro = mankind.

-ĉj denotes masculine affectionate diminutives: paĉjo = daddy; Arĉjo = Archie.

-ebl denotes possibility: kredebla = credible.

-ec denotes abstract quality: boneco = goodness.

-eg denotes great size or intensity: grandega = enormous; varmega = intensely hot.

-ej denotes place: lernejo = a learn-place, a school.

-em denotes propensity to: lernema = studious; kredema = credulous.

-er denotes one out of many, or a unit of a mass: sablero = a grain of sand; fajrero = a spark.

-estr denotes a chief or leader: lernejestro = a head master.

-et denotes diminution: infaneto = a little child; varmeta = warmish.

-id denotes the young of, descendant of: bovido = a calf.

-ig denotes causation: bonigi, plibonigi = to make good, to improve; mortigi = to kill; venigi = to cause to come, to send for.

-iĝ denotes becoming, and has a passive signification: saniĝi, resaniĝi = to get well (again); paliĝi = to grow pale; troviĝi = to be found, occur.

-il denotes an instrument: razilo = a razor.

-in denotes feminine: patrino = mother; bovino = cow.

-ind denotes worthiness: laŭdinda = laudable, praiseworthy.

-ing denotes a holder: kandelingo = a candlestick; glavingo = scabbard.

-ist denotes profession or occupation; maristo = a sailor; bonfaristo = a benefactor.

-nj denotes feminine affectionate diminutives: Manjo = Polly; patrinjo (or panjo) = mamma.

-uj denotes containing or producing: inkujo = inkpot; Anglujo = England.

-ul denotes characteristic: timulo = a coward: avarulo = a miser.

[The suffix -aĉ (not in the Fundamento) is coming into use as a pejorative (= Italian -accio): ridi = to laugh; ridaĉi = to grin, sneer.]

V

table of correlative words

Demonstrative. Relative and Interrogative. Negative. Universal. Indefinite.

Person* tiu that kiu who, which neniu no one ĉiu every, all, every one iu some, some one

Thing* tio that (thing) kio what, which nenio nothing ĉio everything io something

Quality tia that kind of a kia what kind of a nenia no, no kind of ĉia each, every kind of ia any, some kind of

Time tiam then kiam when neniam never ĉiam always iam ever, at some time

Place tie there kie where nenie nowhere ĉie everywhere ie somewhere

Manner tiel thus, so kiel how neniel in no way ĉiel in every way iel in some way, somehow

Motive tial therefore kial why nenial for no reason ĉial for all reasons ial for some reason

Quantity tiom so/as much so/as many kiom how much how many neniom none ĉiom the whole amount iom somewhat, a certain amount

Possession ties of that kies whose, of which nenies nobody's ĉies everybody's ies somebody's

In the demonstrative column, to express "this" instead of "that," add ĉi.

*N.B.—Tiu, kiu, etc., are used in agreement with a noun expressed, even when it does not represent a person.

Ex. Tiu libro, kiun mi legis = that book which I read. Tiuj ĉi floroj = these flowers.

Tio, kio, etc., are used when there is no noun, so that they stand alone.

Ex. Tio estas vera = that is true; kion vi diris? = what did you say? Tio ĉi estas pli granda ol tio = this is bigger than that.

N.B.—In memorizing the above, it is well to remember that t = demonstrative, k = relative-interrogative, ĉ = distributive, i = indefinite, nen = negative.

VI

vocabulary

A

-a

, termination of adjectives.

aĉet‑i

, to buy.

-ad

, suffix denoting continued action.

aer‑o

, air.

ag‑i

, to act.

-aĵ

, suffix denoting concrete substance.

ajn

, (what)ever;

kiu ajn

, whoever.

al

, to.

ali‑a

, other.

almenaŭ

, at least.

alt‑a

, high.

am‑i

, to love.

amas‑o

, crowd, mass.

ankaŭ

, also.

ankoraŭ

, still.

anstataŭ

, instead of.

-ant

, present participle active.

antaŭ

, before (time and place).

apart‑a

, special.

apud

, at.

-ar

, suffix denoting a collection.

arb‑o

, tree.

-as

, ending of present tense.

aŭd‑i

, to hear.

B

baldaŭ

, soon.

bed‑o

, flower bed.

bel‑a

, fine, beautiful.

bezon‑o

, need.

blank‑a

, white.

bon‑a

, good.

bord‑o

, edge, shore.

bril‑i

, to shine.

burĝon‑o

, bud.

C

cel‑o

, object, aim.

cerb‑o

, brain.

cert‑a

, certain.

Ĉ

ĉagren‑o

, trouble.

ĉar

, for, because.

ĉe

, at.

ĉes‑i

, to cease.

ĉi

, added to demonstrative

tiu

, expresses nearer connexion:

tiu

= that;

tiu ĉi

= this.

ĉiam

, always.

ĉie

, everywhere.

ĉirkaŭ

, around.

ĉiu

, all, each, every.

ĉu

, interrogative particle.

D

da

, used after words of quantity: Ex.

multe da vino

, much wine.

daŭr‑i

, to last, continue.

de

, of, from, by (with passive).

des

, comparative particle;

ju...des

, the...the: Ex.

ju pli des pli bone

, the more the better.

dev‑i

, to owe, to be obliged to.

deviz‑o

, device, motto.

difekt‑i

, to spoil.

dir‑i

, to say.

dom‑o

, house.

don‑i

, to give.

du

, two.

dub‑i

, to doubt.

dum

, whilst.

E

-e

, ending of adverbs.

eben‑a

, flat, level.

-ebl

, suffix denoting possibility.

-ec

, suffix denoting abstract quality:

bon‑ec‑o

, goodness.

eĉ

, even.

edz-(in)-o

, husband (wife).

-eg

, suffix denoting great size.

-ej

, suffix denoting place.

ek-

, prefix denoting beginning.

ekster

, outside.

el

, out of.

-em

, suffix denoting propensity.

en

, in.

entrepren‑i

, to undertake.

enu‑i

, to weary, bore.

esper‑i

, to hope.

Esperant‑o

, Esperanto.

est‑i

, to be.

-et

, suffix denoting little.

etend‑i

, to stretch.

F

facil‑a

, easy.

fajr‑o

, fire.

fakt‑o

, fact.

far‑i

, to do.

fenestr‑o

, window.

ferm‑i

, to shut.

fil‑o

, son.

fin‑o

, end.

flank‑o

, side.

fleg‑i

, tend.

flu‑i

, flow.

flug‑i

, to fly.

foj‑o

, time;

du fojoj

, twice.

foli‑o

, leaf.

for

, away.

forn‑o

, oven.

frat‑o

,

brother.

fraz‑o

, sentence.

frenez‑o

, madness.

fru‑a

, early.

frukt‑o

, fruit.

G

ge-

, prefix denoting both sexes.

gent‑o

, race, tribe.

grand‑a

, big, great.

Ĝ

ĝi

, it.

ĝis

, until.

ĝoj‑o

, joy.

ĝu‑i

, to enjoy.

H

hav‑i

, to have.

hejm‑o

, home.

hodiaŭ

, to‑day.

hom‑o

, man (mortal; no distinction of sex).

I

-i

, ending of infinitive.

ideal‑o

, ideal.

-ig

, suffix denoting causation.

-iĝ

, suffix denoting becoming.

-il

, suffix denoting instrument.

ili

, they.

-int

, past participle active.

inter

, between, among.

ir‑i

, to go.

-is

, ending of past tense.

-ist

, suffix denoting agent.

iu

, some one.

J

-j

, ending of plural.

jam

, already.

jar‑o

, year.

jen

, here is, here are (French

voici

).

ju

, comparative particle. See

des

.

jun‑a

, young.

Ĵ

ĵus

, just now.

K

kaj

, and.

kamen‑o

, fireplace.

kamp‑o

, field.

kap‑o

, head.

ke

, that (conjunction).

kelk‑a

, some.

kiam

, when.

kiel

, how, as.

kiu

, who, which.

knab‑o

, boy.

komerc‑o

, commerce.

kompat‑o

, sympathy, pity.

kompren‑i

, to understand.

kon‑i

, to know.

konsil‑i

, to counsel.

konstru‑i

, to build.

kontraŭ

, against.

kred‑i

, to believe.

kresk‑i

, to grow.

krom

, besides.

krut‑a

, steep.

kun

, with.

kuŝ-i

, to lie.

kutim‑i

, to be accustomed.

kvankam

, although.

kvar

, four.

kvazaŭ

, as if.

kvin

, five.

L

la

, the.

lac‑a

, tired.

lag‑o

, lake.

land‑o

, land.

lang‑o

, tongue.

las‑i

, to let, leave.

laŭ

, according to.

leg‑i

, to read.

legom‑o

, vegetable.

lern‑i

, to learn.

lert‑a

, clever.

lev‑i

, to raise.

li

, he.

lim‑o

, limit.

lingv‑o

, language.

lit‑o

, bed.

long‑a

, long.

lum‑o

, light.

M

mal-

, prefix denoting the opposite.

malgraŭ

, in spite of.

manĝ-i

, to eat.

mank‑i

, to be wanting.

mar‑o

, sea.

marĉ-o

, swamp.

maten‑o

, morning.

mem

, self.

met‑i

, to put.

mez‑o

, middle.

mi

, I.

mien‑o

, look, air, gait.

mir‑i

, to wonder.

mon‑o

, money.

mond‑o

, world.

montr‑i

, to show.

morgaŭ

, to‑morrow.

Moŝt‑o

, term of respect: your Highness, Worship, Honour.

mult‑a

, much, many.

N

-n

, ending of accusative: also denotes motion towards and duration of time.

naci‑o

, nation.

nask‑i

, to beget.

ne

, no, not.

neĝ-o

, snow.

neniam

, never.

neniu

, no one.

ni

, we.

nom‑o

, name.

nov‑a

, new.

nub‑o

, cloud.

nun

, now.

nur

, only.

nutr‑i

, to feed.

O

-o

, ending of nouns.

oft‑e

, often.

ok

, eight.

okaz‑i

, to happen.

okul‑o

, eye.

ol

, than.

-on

, suffix denoting fraction.

oni

, one, people (indef pron.).

-ont

, future participle active.

orel‑o

, ear.

-os

, ending of future.

P

pac‑o

, peace.

parol‑i

, to speak.

pen‑i

, to try.

pens‑i

, to think.

per

, by means of.

perd‑i

, to lose.

pez‑a

, heavy.

pied‑o

, foot.

pint‑o

, point, peak.

pist‑i

, to pound.

plaĉ-i

, to please.

plat‑a

, flat.

plej

, most.

plen‑a

, full.

plend‑i

, to complain.

plenum‑i

, to fulfill.

pli

, more.

plu

, more, further, farther.

plug‑i

, to plough.

popol‑o

, people, race.

por

, for.

pord‑o

, door.

post

, after, behind (time and place).

pov‑i

, to be able.

pra

, original, great-(grandfather).

prav‑a

, right.

pren‑i

, to take.

preskaŭ

, almost.

pret‑a

, ready.

preter

, beyond, by.

pri

, about, concerning.

pro

, on account of.

R

rakont‑i

, to narrate.

ramp‑i

, to crawl, climb.

rapid‑a

, quick.

rekt‑a

, straight.

rem‑i

, to row.

renkont‑i

, to meet.

renvers‑i

, to upset, overthrow.

rikolt‑o

, crop.

S

sat‑a

, satisfied, full, replete.

sci‑i

, to know.

sed

, but.

sek‑a

, dry.

sekv‑i

, to follow.

sem‑o

, seed.

sen

, without.

sent‑i

, to feel.

si

, self, relexive pronoun.

sid‑i

, to sit.

sinjor‑o

, sir, Mr., gentleman.

skrib‑i

, to write.

sol‑a

, alone, only.

son‑o

, sound.

sonĝ-o

, dream.

sonor‑a

, sonorous.

spec‑o

, kind, sort.

spert‑o

, experience.

spir‑i

, to breathe.

star‑i

, to stand.

sterk‑o

, manure.

subit‑a

, sudden.

sufiĉ-a

, sufficient.

supr‑a

, upper, superior.

sven‑i

, to swoon.

Ŝ

ŝajn‑i

, to seem.

ŝerc‑i

, to joke.

ŝip‑o

, ship.

ŝirm‑i

, to shelter.

ŝpar‑i

, to save up, economize.

ŝtel‑i

, to steal.

T

tag‑o

, day.

tamen

, yet, nevertheless.

tegment‑o

, roof.

temp‑o

, time.

ten‑i

, to hold, keep.

ter‑o

, earth.

tial

, therefore.

tiel

, thus, so.

tiom

, so much, so many.

tiu

, that.

tra

, through.

traf‑i

, to hit the mark.

trans

, across.

tre

, very.

trem‑i

, to tremble.

tro

, too much.

tromp‑i

, to deceive.

trov‑i

, to find.

trud‑i

, to shove, thrust.

tuj

, immediately.

tut‑a

, all.

U

-u

, ending of imperative subjunctive.

-uj

, suffix denoting "holder".

-ul

, suffix denoting characteristic.

unu

, one.

V

vapor‑o

, steam.

vek‑i

, to wake (trans.).

vel‑o

, sail.

velk‑a

, faded.

ven‑i

, to come.

venk‑i

, to conquer.

vent‑o

, wind.

ver‑a

, true.

vesper‑o

, evening.

vetur‑i

, to travel by vehicle (train, carriage, boat, etc.).

vi

, you.

vid‑i

, to see.

vidv-(in)-o

, widow(er).

vir-(in)-o

, man (woman).

viv‑i

, to live.

voj‑o

, way.

vojaĝ-o

, voyage, journey.

vokal‑o

, vowel.

vol‑i

, to wish.

vom‑i

, to vomit, be sick.

vort‑o

, word.

Z

zorg‑o

, care.

APPENDIX A

sample problems in regular language

Word-building can be made quite an amusing game for children. For instance, give them the suffixes -ej (denoting place) and -il (denoting instrument), and set them to form words for "school," "church," "factory," "knife," "warming-pan," etc. (lernejo, preĝejo, fabrikejo, tranĉito, varmigilo).

But since the language is perfectly regular in form and construction, and the learner can therefore argue from case to case, it is a useful instrument for instilling clear ideas of grammatical categories. Thus give the roots—

viv‑i = to live san‑a = healthy hom‑o = man

long‑a = long saĝ-a = wise Di‑o = God

don‑i = to give

and set such sentences as the following to be worked out—

"He lives long"; "A long life is a gift of God"; "It is wise to live healthily"; "God is divine, man is human"; "Human life is short," etc.

The same roots constantly recur with an -o, -a, or -e tacked on; and the practice in sorting out the endings, and attaching them like labels to nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, soon marks off the corresponding ideas clearly in the learner's mind.

Analogous to simple sums and conducive to clear thinking are such sentences as the following, for rather more advanced pupils:

Given—

raz‑i = to shave serv‑i = to serve san‑a = healthy

akr‑a = sharp mort‑i = to die ven‑i = to come

uz‑i = to use hak‑i = to hew kun = with

sent‑i = to feel

and the table of affixes.

Translate—"Constant use had blunted his razor"; "He had his servant shaved"; "He killed his companion with an axe"; "Let us send for the doctor."

More advanced exercise (on the same roots):

Translate—"O Death, where is thy sting?" "Community of service brings together men subject to death, and dulls the perception of their common mortality. Willing service dissipates the weariness of the server; the deadliness of disease is mitigated, and the place of sickness becomes a place of health."

By referring to the table of affixes, the use of which has of course been explained, the learner can work out the answers as follows:

Uz‑ad‑o estis mal‑akr‑ig‑int‑a lian raz‑il‑on. Li raz‑ig‑is sian serv‑ant-(or ist)on. Li mort‑ig‑is sian kun‑ul‑on per hak‑il‑o. Ni ven‑ig‑u la san‑ig‑ist‑on.

More advanced:

Ho Morto, kie estas via akr‑ec‑o? Kun‑servo (or kuneco de servo) kun‑ig‑as la mort‑em-(ul)-ojn, kaj mal‑akr‑ig‑as la sent‑on de ilia kun‑a mort‑em‑ec‑o. Serv‑em‑ec‑o dis‑ig‑as la el‑uz‑it‑ec‑on de la serv‑ant‑o; la mort‑ig‑ec‑o de la mal‑san‑ec‑o mal‑akr‑iĝ-as, kaj la mal‑san‑ej‑o iĝas san‑ej‑o.

No national language could be used in this way for building sentences according to rules, and such exercises should give a practical grip of clear use of language. The student is obliged to analyse the exact meaning of every word of the English sentence, and this necessity inculcates a nice discrimination in the use of words. At the same time the necessary word-building depends upon clear-headed and logical application of rule. There is no memory work, but the mind is kept on the stretch, and the exercise is wholesome as combating confusion of thought and slovenliness of expression.

APPENDIX B

esperanto hymn by dr. zamenhof

La Espero

En la mondon venis nova sento, Tra la mondo iras forta voko; Per flugiloj de facila vento Nun de loko flugu ĝi al loko.

Ne al glavo sangon soifanta Ĝi la homan tiras familion: Al la mond' eterne militanta Ĝi promesas sanktan harmonion.

Sub la sankta signo de l'espero Kolektiĝas pacaj batalantoj, Kaj rapide kreskas la afero Per laboro de la esperantoj.

Forte staras muroj de miljaroj Inter la popoloj dividitaj; Sed dissaltos la obstinaj baroj, Per la sankta amo disbatitaj.

Sub neŭtrala lingva fundamento, Komprenante unu la alian, La popoloj faros en konsento Unu grandan rondon familian.

Nia diligenta kolegaro En laboro paca ne laciĝos, Ĝis la bela sonĝo de l'homaro Por eterna ben' efektiviĝos.

literal translation

Hope

Into the world has come a new feeling, Through the world goes a mighty call; On light wind-wings Now may it fly from place to place.

Not to the sword thirsting for blood Does it draw the human family: To the world eternally at war It promises holy harmony.

Beneath the holy banner of hope Throng the soldiers of peace, And swiftly spreads the Cause Through the labour of the hopeful.

Strong stand the walls of a thousand years Between the sundered peoples; But the stubborn bars shall leap apart, Battered to pieces by holy love.

On the fair foundation of common speech, Understanding one another, The peoples in concord shall make up One great family circle.

Our busy band of comrades Shall never weary in the work of peace, Till humanity's grand dream Shall become the truth of eternal blessing.

APPENDIX C

the letter c in esperanto

c = ts in English "bits."

This has given rise to much criticism. The same sound is also expressed by the letters ts. Why depart from the Esperanto principle, "one sound, one letter," and have two symbols (c and ts) for the same sound?

A standing difficulty of an international language is: What equivalent shall be adopted for the c of national languages? The difficulty arises owing to the diversity of value and history of the c in diverse tongues. Philologists, who know the history of the Latin hard c and its various descendants in modern languages, will appreciate this.

(1) Shall c be adopted in the international language, or omitted? If it is omitted, many useful words, which it is desirable to adopt and which are ordinarily spelt with a c, will have to be arbitrarily deformed, and this deformation may amount to actual obscuring of their sense. E.g. cento = hundred; centro = centre; cerbo = brain; certa = certain; cirkonstanco = circumstance; civila = civil, etc. Such works would become almost unrecognizable for many in the forms kento, sento, tsento, etc.

(2) If, then, c is retained, what value is to be given to it? The hard and soft sounds of the English c (as in English "cat," "civil") are already represented by k and s. Neither of these letters can be dispensed with in the international language; and it is undesirable to confuse orthographically or phonetically c-roots with s- or k-roots. Therefore another value must be found for the symbol c. The choice is practically narrowed down to the Italian soft c = ch, as in English "church," and the German¹ c = ts in English "bits." Now ch is a useful and distinctive sound, and has been adopted in Esperanto with a symbol of its own: ĉ. Therefore ts remains.

¹Also late Latin and early Norman French.

(3) Why not then abolish c and write ts instead? For answer, see No. (1) above. It is a worse evil to introduce such monstrosities as tsento, tsivila, etc., than to allow two symbols for the same sound, ts and c. International language has to appeal to the eye as well as to the ear.

This matter of the c is only one more instance of the wisdom of Dr. Zamenhof in refusing to make a fetish of slavish adherence to rule. Practical common-sense is a safer guide than theory in attaining the desired goal—ease (of eye, ear, tongue, and pen) for greatest number. In practice no confusion arises between c and ts.