Chapter IX · (continued 2)

Wine is, moreover, a prominent feature in many of the Irish legends of sea-voyages. The voyagers often find intoxicating drinks, which make them sleep for several days, and they are often tormented by burning thirst and come to islands with springs that give a marvellously quickening drink. In the tale of the voyage of the three sons of Ua Corra (twelfth century ?) they arrive at an island where a stream of wine flows through a forest of oaks, which glitters enticingly with juicy fruits. They ate of the apples, drank a little of the stream of wine, and were immediately satisfied and felt neither wounds nor sickness any more. In the tale of Maelduin there is an island with soil as white as a feather and with a spring which on Wednesdays and Fridays gives whey or water, on Sundays and the days of martyrs good milk, but on the days of the Apostles, of Mary and of John the Baptist, and on the great festivals it gives ale and wine [cf. Zimmer, 1889, pp. 163, 189].

Resemblances to Lucian

Brandan’s Grape-island, Maelduin who intoxicates himself by eating the wine-fruit, and the stream of wine flowing through the oak forest, all bear a remarkable resemblance to what the Greek sophist and satirist Lucian (second century A.D.) relates in his fables in the “Vera Historia” about the seafarers who came to a lofty wooded island. As they wandered through the woods they came to a river, which instead of water ran with wine, like Chios wine. In many places it was broad and deep enough to be navigable, and it had its source in many great vines, which hung full of grapes. In the river were fish of the colour and taste of wine. They swallowed some so greedily that they became thoroughly intoxicated. But afterwards they had the idea of mixing these wine-fish with water-fish, whereby they lost the too-powerful taste of wine and were a good dish. After wading through the river of wine they came upon some remarkable vines, the upper part of which were like well-developed women down to the belt. Their fingers ran out into twigs full of grapes, their heads were covered with vine-branches, leaves and grapes, instead of hair. “The ladies kissed us on the mouth,” says Lucian, “but those who were kissed became drunk on the spot and reeled. Only their fruit they would not allow us to take, and they cried out in pain if we plucked a grape or two off them. On the other hand, some of them showed a desire to pair with us, but two of my companions who complied with them had to pay dearly for it; for ... they grew together with them in such a way that they became one stem with common roots.” After this strange experience the voyagers filled their empty barrels partly with ordinary water, partly with wine from the river, and on the following morning they left the island. In the Isle of the Blest, at which they afterwards arrived, there were, in addition to many rivers of water, of honey, of sweet-scented essences and of oil, seven rivers of milk and eight of wine. We even find a parallel in Lucian to Maelduin’s white island with the springs of milk and wine, as the travellers come to a sea of milk, where there was a great island of cheese, covered with vines full of grapes; but these yielded milk instead of wine [cf. Wieland, 1789, iv. pp. 150 ff., 188 f., 196]. A direct literary connection between Lucian and the Irish myths can hardly be probable, as he is not thought to have been known in Western Europe before the fourteenth century; but he was much read in Eastern Europe, and oral tales founded on his stories may have reached the Irish. The resemblances are so pronounced and so numerous that it does not seem very probable that they should be wholly accidental. Such an oral connection might, for instance, have been brought about by the Scandinavians, who had much intercourse with Miklagard (Byzantium), or by the Arabs, who in fact preserved a great part of Greek literature, and who were in constant communication both with Celts and with Scandinavians.

Connection of the Brandan legend with northern waters

That a mythical island like the Isle of Grapes—or perhaps others as well, such as the “Insula Deliciosa”—might be the origin of the “Vinland hit Góða” of the Icelanders, to which one sailed from Greenland (and of Adam of Bremen’s Winland), appears natural also from the fact that many of the islands and tracts that are mentioned in the “Navigatio,” and that for the most part are also mentioned in the older tale of Maelduin, are undoubtedly connected with northern and western waters. That this must be so is easily understood when one considers the voyages of Irish monks to the Faroes and Iceland. The Sheep Island, which was full of sheep, and where Brandan obtained his paschal lamb, must be the Faroes, where the sheep are mentioned even by Dicuil (see p. 163), just as the island with the many birds also reminds us of Dicuil’s account of these islands; the island on the borders of Hell, whose steep cliffs were black as coal, where one of Brandan’s monks, when he set foot ashore, was instantly seized and burnt by demons, and which at their departure they saw covered with fire and flames, may have some connection with Iceland.[349] But it also bears some resemblance to the Hell Island that Lucian’s voyagers come to, surrounded by steep cliffs, where there were stinking fumes of asphalt, sulphur, pitch, and roasted human beings. When Brandan arrives at the curdled sea (“mare quasi coagulatum”), and has to sail through darkness before he comes to the Land of Happiness, or when we hear of a thick fog like a wall about the kingdom of Manannan, we again think of the northern regions where the Liver Sea lay, and where Adam of Bremen had his dark or mist-filled sea.

Classical roots of the Brandan legend

While thus many features connect the legend of Brandan with northern waters, it has, on the other hand—like many other Irish myths—its roots far down in the mythical conceptions of the classics. Above all, Brandan’s Paradise or “Promised Land of the Saints,” Terra Repromissionis Sanctorum, is nothing but the Greeks’ Isles of the Blest, blended with ideas from the Bible. As shown by Zimmer [1889, pp. 328 ff.], the Imram Maelduin (which to a large extent forms the foundation of the Navigatio St. Brandani) and other Irish tales of sea-voyages have great similarity to Virgil’s Æneid, and are composed on its model. We have already said that Brandan’s Grape-island may have some connection with Lucian. From him is possibly also derived Brandan’s great whale, “Iasconicus,” on whose back they live and celebrate Easter. But similar big fishes are known from old Indian legends, from the legends about Alexander, etc. It may also be mentioned that in the Breton legend corresponding to Brandan’s, that of St. Machutus (written down by Bili, deacon at Aleth, ninth century), the latter and Brandan came to an island where they find the dead giant “Mildu,” whom Machutus awakens and baptizes and who, wading through the sea, tries to draw their ship to the Paradise-island of “Yma,” which he says is surrounded by a wall of shining gold, like a mirror, without any visible entrance. But a storm raises the sea and bursts the cable by which he is towing them. Humboldt already saw in this giant the god Cronos, who, according to Plutarch, lay sleeping on an island in the Cronian Sea to the north-west of Ogygia, which lay five days’ voyage to the west of Britain (see above, p. 156). It is probably the same giant who in the tale of Brandan written in Irish (“Imram Brenaind”) has become a beautiful maiden, whiter than snow or sea-spray; but a hundred feet high, nine feet across between the breasts, and with a middle finger seven feet long. She is lying lifeless, killed by a spear through the shoulder; but Brandan awakens and baptizes her. She belongs to the sea-people, who are awaiting redemption. As, in answer to Brandan’s question, she prefers going straight to heaven to living, she dies again immediately without a sigh after taking the sacrament [cf. Schirmer, 1888, pp. 30, 72; Zimmer, 1889, p. 136; De Goeje, 1891, p. 69]. This maiden is evidently connected with the supernaturally beautiful, big, and white king’s daughter from the Land of Virgins (“Tír na-n-Ingen”) who seeks the protection of Finn MacCumaill, and who is also pierced by a spear [cf. Zimmer, 1889, pp. 269, 325]. Thus do mythical beings transform themselves till they become unrecognisable. The same woman is found again in Iceland as late as the seventeenth century.[350]

The Brandan legend and Norse literature

In many of its features the Brandan legend, or similar Irish legends, may be shown to have had influence on Norse literature. The theft of the neck-chain (or bridle ?) by one of the brethren, who comes to grief thereby, in the Navigatio and in other Irish tales, is found again, as Moltke Moe points out to me, in the story of Thorkel Adelfar in Saxo Grammaticus, as a theft of jewels and of a cloak, through which the thieves also come to grief. The great fish (whale) “Iasconicus,” of which Brandan relates that it tries in vain to bite its own tail, is evidently the Midgardsworm of Norse literature. In the same way the little, apparently innocent, but supernatural cat in the “Imram Maelduin” which suddenly destroys the man who steals the neck-chain may be connected with the cat that Thor tries to lift in Utgard. It is doubtless the same little cat that three young priests took with them on their voyage in another Irish legend [in the Book of Leinster, of the beginning of the twelfth century]. In the “Imram Brenaind” this little cat they took with them has grown into a monkey as large as a young ox, which swims after Brandan’s boat and wants to swallow it [cf. Zimmer, 1889, p. 139]. Again, quite recently Von Sydow [1910, pp. 65 ff.] has shown that the Snorra-Edda’s myth of Thor’s journey to Utgard is based on Irish myths and tales.

The happy land in the west known in Northern Europe

Legends of a happy land or an island far over the sea towards the sunset were evidently widely diffused in Northern Europe in those days, outside Ireland. In Anglo-Saxon literature there is a dialogue between Adrianus and Ritheus (probably of the tenth century), where we read:

“Tell me where the sun shines at night.”... “I tell you in three places: first in the belly of the whale that is called ‘Leuiathan’; and the second season it shines in Hell; and the third season it shines upon the island that is called ‘Glið,’ and there the souls of holy men repose till doomsday.”[351]

This Glið (i.e., the glittering land) is evidently the Land of the Blest, Brandan’s Terra Repromissionis, that lies in dazzling sunshine, after one has passed through darkness and mist; but whether the myth reached the Anglo-Saxons from the Irish seems doubtful.

Pseudo-Gildas’s description (twelfth century) of the isle of “Avallon” (the apple-island of Welsh myth) is also of interest; it is connected with exactly the same ideas as the Irish happy isles:

“A remarkable island is surrounded by the ocean, full of all good things; no thief, no robber, no enemy pursues one there; no violence, no winter, no summer rages immoderately; peace, concord, spring last eternally, neither flower nor lily is wanting, nor rose nor violet; the apple-tree bears flowers and fruit on the selfsame branch; there without stain youths dwell with their maidens, there is no old age and no oppressive sickness, no sorrow, all is full of joy.”[352]

The name of Wineland derived from Ireland

It results, then, from what has here been quoted, that a Grape-island (“Insula Uvarum”) makes its appearance in Irish literature in the eleventh century, at about the same time when Adam of Bremen mentions, from Danish informants, an island called “Winland.” Of the same century again is the Norwegian runic stone from Hönen in Ringerike, on which, as we shall see later, Wineland is possibly mentioned (?) From the form of the runes, S. Bugge ascribes it to the first half of the eleventh century, hardly older, though it may be later. “Insula Uvarum” translated into the Old Norse language could not very well become anything but Vínland (or Víney), since Vínberjarey or Vínberjarland would not sound well. We thus have the remarkable circumstance that an island with the same name and the same properties makes its appearance almost simultaneously in Ireland and in Denmark (and possibly also in Norway). That these Wine-islands or Winelands should have originated entirely independently of one another, in countries which had such close intellectual connection, would be a coincidence of the kind that one cannot very well assume, since it must be regarded as more probable that there was a connection. But Brandan’s Grape-island can scarcely be derived from a Wineland discovered by the Norsemen, since, as has been mentioned, the wine and wine-fruit play such a prominent part in the older Irish legends, and the ancient tale of Bran (“Echtra Brain”) describes the Irish Elysium (“Mag Mell”) as a land with magnificent woods and the true scent of the vine, etc. (see p. 355). In the next place, as has been mentioned, Brandan’s Grape-island bears a resemblance to Lucian’s Grape-island; but as Lucian’s descriptions seem also to have influenced, among others, the tale of the intoxicating wine-fruit in the “Imram Maelduin,” it looks as though Lucian’s stories had reached Ireland (e.g., by Scandinavian travellers or through Arabs ?) long before the Navigatio Brandani was written. As thus the Irish wine-island cannot well be due to a Norse discovery, it becomes probable that Adam’s name Winland (as well as the possible Norwegian name) was originally derived from Ireland, and that it reached the northern countries orally. If the Danes did not get the name from the Norwegians they may have brought it themselves, as they also had direct communication with Ireland.[353] This conclusion, that the name of Wineland came from Ireland, is again strengthened from an entirely different quarter, namely, the Landnámabók, where it is said that Great-Ireland lay near Wineland. As suggested on p. 354, this shows that the Icelanders must have heard both lands spoken of in Ireland. As Ravn Hlymreks-farer is given as the original authority, and after him Thorfinn, earl of Orkney (ob. circa 1064), this may have been at the beginning of the eleventh century; but as the statement came finally from Thorkel Gellisson (and consequently was written down by Are Frode) it may also have been in the second half of that century. In this way we seem to have a natural explanation of the simultaneous appearance of the name in the North.[354]

As the statement in the Landnáma is due to Thorkel Gellisson, it is doubtless most probable that the Wineland that is mentioned for the first time in Icelandic literature in a gloss in Are Frode’s Íslendingabók also has Thorkel (who is mentioned immediately afterwards) for its authority (cf. p. 258), although the sentence might be by Are himself. Thorkel may have heard of this Wineland in Greenland; but it is more likely to be the country he heard of in connection with the mythical Hvítramanna-land from Ireland, and he may have heard that there were said to dwell there wights (or trolls) that were called Skrælings. Two possibilities suggest themselves: either this Wineland with its Skrælings was nothing but the well-known mythical land with its mythical people, which required no further description. It cannot be objected that the sober, critical Are would not have mentioned a mythical country in this way; for, if he was capable of believing in a Hvítramanna-land, he could also believe in such a Wineland. Or, on the other hand, it was a land which had actually been discovered and to which the name of the mythical country had been transferred. The latter hypothesis might be strengthened by other things that point to the Greenlanders having really found land in the west. But, on the other hand, if a country actually discovered is meant, it is curious that neither Are nor the Landnáma makes any mention of the discovery, whereas the discovery of Greenland is related at some length, and also that of Hvítramanna-land. Again, when Eric the Red came to Greenland, such a land had in any case not been discovered, so that it could not have been he who named the Eskimo after the inhabitants of that land, whereas Are might readily suppose that he had taken the name of Skrælings from the people of the mythical country; thus Are’s words, as they now stand, would have a clearer meaning.

It may also be worth mentioning that in the only passage of the Sturlubók where Wineland is alluded to, it is called “Irland et Goda.” This has generally been regarded as a copyist’s error; but that it was due to misreading of an indistinctly written “Vinland” is not likely; it might rather be due to a careless repetition, since “Irland et Mikla” is mentioned just before. This is most probable. It may, however, be supposed that it is not an error, and that just as the latter is an alternative name for Hvítramanna-land, so “Irland et Góða” may be a corresponding alternative name for Wineland, which was situated near it. We should thus again be led to Ireland as the home of the name. In any case the uncertainty which prevails in the versions of the name of Wineland given in the oldest authorities is striking (as discussed in the last note). Nothing of the same sort occurs in the transmission of other geographical names, and a form such as Vindland in Hauk’s Landnáma cannot be explained as merely a copyist’s error. Again, Eric’s Saga in the Hauksbók has the name correctly, although this saga as well as the Landnáma was to a great extent copied by Hauk Erlendsson himself. This may point to the form Vindland having occurred in the original from which the Landnáma was copied. This discloses uncertainty in the very reading of the name, and it seems also to point to its having been a mythical country and not the name of a known land that had been discovered.

Landit Góða, Fairyland

To any one who is familiar with Norse place-names, the addition “hit góða” to Wineland must appear foreign and unusual. It is otherwise only known in the northern countries from the name “Landegode” (originally “Landit Góða”) on the coast of Norway, for an island west of Bodö. The same name was also used (and is still used in Stad and Herö) for Svinöi, a little island off Sunnmör, and for Jomfruland (south of Langesund). It has been generally taken for a so-called tabu-name;[355] but the explanation suggested to me by Moltke Moe seems more probable, that it was a designation of fairylands, which lay out in the ocean, and which were thought to sink into the sea as one approached them. The above-mentioned Norwegian islands would quite answer to such conceptions, especially when they loom up and seem larger, and all three islands were formerly fairylands (“huldrelande”). The original germ of the belief in fairies (“huldrer”) is the worship of the departed. “Hulder” means “hidden” (i.e., the hidden people). Fairylands are therefore the islands of the hidden, or of the departed, and these again are the Fortunate Isles or the Isles of the Blest. A parallel to this is that “Hades” in Greek means the invisible. And, as we have seen (p. 356), the nymph Calypso (== the hidden one) answers to our “hulder.” When Bran, in the Irish legend alluded to, meets on the sea Manannán mac Lir (i.e., son of the Sea), king of the sea-people, lord of the land of the dead, he tells Bran that without being able to see it he is sailing over Mag Mell (the happy plain), where happy people are sitting drinking wine, and where there is a splendid forest with vines, etc.; and the Irish happy land “Tír fo-Thuin” is, as we have said (p. 358), the land under the wave. The lands or islands of the departed in course of time became the habitations of the invisible ones (spirits), of those who possess more than human wisdom, and have a specially favourable lot; by this means the idea of a fortunate land with favoured conditions, far surpassing the ordinary lot of men, became more and more emphasised. This development may be followed both with regard to classical ideas of the Fortunate Islands and to Norse conceptions of fairylands.

That the Greeks connected the happy land with the hidden people who move upon the sea may perhaps be concluded even from the Odyssey’s description of the Phæacians, who dwelt in the happy land, the glorious Scheria, far in the western ocean (see above, p. 347). That they may be compared with our fairies (“huldrefolk”) appears perhaps from the name itself, which may come from φαιός (== dark) and mean “dark man,” “the hidden man” [cf. Welcker, 1833, p. 231].[356] They sail at night, always shrouded in clouds and darkness, in boats as swift “as wings and the thoughts of men” [Od. vii. 35 f.]. The “huldrefolk” also travel by night (cf. p. 378). In Ireland and in Iceland the way to fairyland is through darkness and mist, or sea or water [cf. Gröndal, 1863, pp. 25, 38]; and it is the same in Nordland. A blending of the fairies (“síd”-people) and the inhabitants of the happy land or promised land is particularly observable in the Irish legends [cf. Zimmer, 1889, pp. 276 f.]. The people of the “síd” dwell partly in grave-mounds (and are thus like our “haugebonde,” or mound-elf), they may also live in happy lands far west in the sea or under the sea, and are thus sea-elves, but on the whole they most resemble our “huldrefolk.” The “síd”-woman entices men like our “hulder”; in the tale of “Condla Ruad” [Connla the Fair; cf. Zimmer, 1889, p. 262] she comes from the Land of the Living (“Tír na-m-Beó”), far across the sea, and entices Connla to go with her in a glass boat to the “Great Strand,” where there only were women and maidens. This Irish paradise of women out in the ocean has, as we have said (p. 355), much in common with the German Venusberg, and with the invisible country of our “huldrefolk.” But the “huldrefolk” dwell now in mountains and woods, now on islands in the sea or under the sea. As will be seen, the ideas of the Fortunate Isles or of the Promised Land and those of fairyland thus often coincide. It may be added that among many peoples the souls of the dead are carried across the sea in a boat or ship to a land in the west.

This is evidently connected with the river of death, Styx, Acheron or Cocytus, of the Greeks, over which Charon ferried the souls to the lower regions in a narrow two-oared boat. Procopius [De bello Goth., iv. 20] relates that according to legends he himself heard from the natives, all the souls of the departed are carried every night at midnight from the coast of Germania to the island of Brittia (i.e., Britain) which lies over against the mouth of the Rhine between Britannia (i.e., Brittany) and Thule (Scandinavia). He whose turn it is among the dwellers on the coast to be ferryman hears at midnight a knocking at his door and a muffled voice. He goes down to the beach, sees there an empty, strange boat, into which he gets and begins to row. He then notices that the boat is filled so that the gunwale is only a finger’s breadth above the water, but he sees nothing. As soon as he arrives at the opposite shore, he notices that the boat is suddenly emptied, but still he sees no one, and only hears a voice announcing the names and rank of the arrivals. The invisible souls, who always move in silence, answer to the elves.

In many ways the connection between the dead and the sea is apparent. Balder’s body was laid in a ship on which a pyre was kindled, and it was abandoned to the currents of the sea. The body of the hero Scild in the lay of Beowulf was borne upon a ship, which was carried away by the sea, no one knows whither. Fiosi in Njál’s Saga has himself carried on board a ship and abandoned to the sea, and afterwards the ship is not heard of again, etc.[357]

That the fairylands should be called “Landit Góða” may be due to their exceeding fertility (cf. the huldreland’s waving cornfields); but it may also, as Moltke Moe has pointed out, have a natural connection with the tendency the Germanic peoples in ancient times seem to have had of attaching the idea of “good” to the fairies and the dead. In Nordland the “huldrefolk” are called “godvetter” (“good wights”) [cf. I. Aasen]; this among the Lapps has become “gúvitter,” “gufihter,” “gufittarak,” etc., as a name for supernatural beings underground or in the sea;[358] the Swedes in North Sweden use the word “goveiter.” The mound-elf (“haugebonden”), Old Norse “haugbui” (the dweller in the mound), who was the ancestor of the clan, or the representative of the departed generations, is called in Nordland “godbonden.”[359]

The underground people are called in Iceland “ljúflingar,” in German “die guten Leute,” in English-speaking Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man “the good people,” “good neighbours,” or “the men of peace.”[360] In Highland Gaelic they are called “daoine sith,” in Welsh “dynion mad.” In Swedish and Danish we have the designation “nisse god-dreng” (“nisse good boy”) or “goda-nisse,” in Norwegian “go-granne” (“good neighbour”); (in Danish also “kære granne,” “dear neighbour”); in German “Guter (or lieber) Nachbar,” or “Gutgesell” is used of a goblin; in Thuringia “Gütchen,” “Gütel”; in the Netherlands “goede Kind,” and in England “Robin Goodfellow.”

That the epithet “good” applied to supernatural beings, especially underground ones, is so widely spread, even among the Lapps, shows it to have been common early in the Middle Ages.

It is of minor interest in this connection to inquire what the origin of the epithet may have been. We might suppose that it was the thought of the departed as the happy, blest people; but on the other hand it may have been fear; it may have been sought to conciliate them by giving them pet-names, for the same reason that thunder is called in Swedish “gobon” (godbonden), “gofar,” “gogubben,” “gomor,” “goa” (goa går),[361] which is also Norwegian.

“Hit góða” is the altogether good, the perfect, therefore the fortunate land. When the legend of the “Insulæ Fortunatæ” and of the Irish happy lands—one of which was the sunken fairyland “Tír fo-Thuin,” the land under-wave—reached the North, it was quite natural that the Northerners should translate the name by one well known to them, “Landit Góða” (fairyland, the land of the unseen); indeed, the name of Insulæ Fortunatæ could not well have been translated in any other way. But as wine was so conspicuous a feature in the description of this southern land of myth, both in Isidore and among the Irish, and as wine more than any other feature was symbolical of the idea of happiness, it is natural, as we have seen, that the Northerners came very soon to call this country, like Brandan’s Grape-island, “Vínland”; thus “Vínland hit Góða” may have arisen by a combination of “Vínland” and “Landit góða,” to distinguish it from the native “Landit Góða,” the fairyland of the Norwegians. A combination of “hit góða” with a proper name is otherwise unknown, and thus points to “Landit Góða” as the original form.[362]

Laudatory names for fairyland

Moltke Moe has given me an example from Gotland of a fairyland having received a laudatory name answering to Wineland, in that the popular fairyland “Sjóhaj” or “Flåjgland,” out at sea, is called Smörland.[363] Sjóhaj is a mirage on the sea; and “Flåjgland” comes from “fljuga,” to fly, i.e., that which drifts about, floating land. It now only means looming, but it may originally have been fairyland, and it is evident that it is here described as particularly fertile. With “Smörland” may be compared Norwegian place-names compounded with “smör”: “Smörtue,” “Smörberg,” “Smörklepp.” O. Rygh includes these among “Laudatory names ... which accentuate good qualities of the property or of the place.”[364] Similarly in the place-names of Shetland: “Smerrin” (== “smjǫr-vin,” fat, fertile pasture), “Smernadal” (== “smjǫr-vinjar-dalr,” valley with fat pasture), “de Smerr-meadow” (== originally: “smjor-eng” or “smjǫr-vin”), “de Smerwel-park” (probably == “smjor-vollr”), “de Smorli” (probably == “smjor-hlið”). J. Jakobsen [1902, p. 166] says that “‘smer(r)’ (Old Norse ‘smjǫr’ or ‘smœr,’ Norwegian ‘smör,’ butter) means here fertility, good pasture, in the same way as in Norwegian names of which the first syllable is ‘smör.’” With this may be compared the fact that even in early times the word “smör” was used to denote a fat land, as when Thorolf in the saga said that “it dripped butter from every blade of grass in the land they had found” (i.e., Iceland, see above, p. 257, cf. also “smjǫr-tisdagr” == “Fat Tuesday,” “Mardi gras”). That the fairylands were connected with fertility appears also from a Northern legend. Nordfuglöi, to the north of Karlsöi, was once a troll-island, hidden under the sea and invisible to men, thus a “huldre” island. But then certain troll-hags betook themselves to towing it to land; a Lapp hag who happened to cast her eye through the door-opening saw them come rowing with the island, so that the spray dashed over it, and cried: “Oh, what a good ‘food-land’ we have now got!” And thereupon the island stopped at the mouth of the sea, where it now is.[365] The fertility of fairyland is doubtless also expressed in the incident of the sow that finds it (see later), usually having a litter there. Its fertility appears again, perhaps, in H. Ström’s [1766, p. 436] mention of “Buskholm” (i.e., Bush-island) in Herö (Sunnmör), which was inhabited by underground beings and protected, therefore wholly overgrown with trees and bushes. The Icelandic elfland “is delightful, covered with beautiful forests and sweet smelling flowers” [cf. Gröndal, 1863, p. 25], and the Irish is the same.

Floating islands

Legends of islands and countries that disappeared or moved, like the fairylands, are widely diffused. To begin with, the Delos (cf. δηλόω, become visible) of the Greeks floated about in the sea for a long time, as described by Callimachus [v.]; now the island was found, now it was away again, until it was fixed among the Cyclades. Ireland, which also at a very early time was the holy island (cf. p. 38), floated about in the sea at the time of the Flood. Lucas Debes [1673, pp. 19 ff.] relates that “at various times a floating island is said to have been seen” among the Faroes; but no one can reach it. “The inhabitants also tell a fable of Svinöe,[366] how that in the beginning it was a floating island: and they think that if one could come to this island, which is often seen, and throw steel upon it, it would stand still.... Many things are related of such floating islands, and some think that they exist in nature.” Debes does not believe it. “If this was not described of the properties of various islands, I should say that it was icebergs, which come floating from Greenland: and if that be not so, then I firmly believe that it is phantoms and witchcraft of the Devil, who in himself is a thousandfold craftsman.” Erich Pontoppidan [1753, ii. p. 346] defends the devil and protests against this view of Debes, that it is “phantasmata and sorcery of the devil,” and says: “But as, according to the wholesome rule, we ought to give the Devil his due, I think that the devil who in haste makes floating islands is none other than that Kraken, which some seamen also call ‘Söe-Draulen,’ that is, the sea troll.”

Of Svinöi in the Faroes precisely the same legend exists as of similar islands in Norway (see p. 378), that they came “up,” or became visible, through a sow upon which steel had been bound [cf. Hammershaimb, 1891, p. 362].

In many places there are such disappearing islands. Honorius Augustodunensis makes some remarkable statements in his work “De imagine mundi” [i. 36], of about 1125. After mentioning the Balearic Isles and the Gorgades, he says: “By the side of them [lie] the Hesperides, so called from the town of Hesperia. There is abundance of sheep with white wool, which is excellent for dyeing purple. Therefore the legend says that these islands have golden apples (‘mala’). For ‘miclon’ [error for ‘malon’] means sheep in Greek.[367] To these islands belonged the great island which according to the tale of Plato sank with its inhabitants, and which exceeded Africa and Europe in extent, where the curdled sea (‘Concretum Mare’) now is.... There lies also in the Ocean an island which is called the Lost (‘Perdita’); in charm and all kinds of fertility it far surpasses every other land, but it is unknown to men. Now and again it may be found by chance; but if one seeks for it, it cannot be found, and therefore it is called ‘the Lost.’ Men say that it was this island that Brandanus came to.” It is of special interest that thus as early as that time a disappearing island occurred near the Fortunate Isles.

Columbus says in his diary that the inhabitants of Ferro and Gomera (Canary Isles) assert that every year they see land to the west. Afterwards expeditions were even sent out to search for it. The Dutchman Van Linschoten speaks in 1589 of this beautiful lost land under the name of “San Borondon” (St. Brandan), a hundred leagues to the west of the Canaries. Its inhabitants are said to be Christians, but it is not known of what nation they are, or what language they speak;[368] the Spaniards of the Canaries have made many vain attempts to find it. The same island, which sometimes shows itself near the Canaries, but withdraws when one tries to approach it, still lives in Spanish folk-lore under the name of “San Morondon.”[369]

On the coast of the English Channel sailors have stories of floating islands, which many of them have seen with their own eyes. They always fly before ships, and one can never land there. They are drawn along by the devil, who compels the souls of drowned men who have deserved Hell and are damned, to stay there till the Day of Judgment. On some of them the roar of a terrible beast is heard; and sailors look upon the meeting with such an island as a sinister warning.[370]

Curiously enough, there is said to be a myth of “a floating island” among the Iroquois Indians. In their mythology the earth is due to the Indian ruler of a great island which floats in space, and where there is eternal peace. In its abundance there are no burdens to bear, in its fertility all want is for ever precluded. Death never comes to its eternal quietude—and no desire, no sorrow, no pain disturbs its peace.[371] These ideas remind one strikingly of the Isles of the Blest, and are probably derived from European influence in recent times. Again, at Boston, in America, there is found a myth of an enchanted green land out in the sea to the east; it flies when one approaches, and no white man can reach this island, which is called “the island that flies.” An Indian, the last of his tribe, saw it a few times before his death, and set out in his canoe to row, as he said, to the isle of happy spirits. He disappeared in a storm the like of which had never been known, and after this the enchanted island was never seen again [cf. Sébillot, 1886, p. 349].

Even the Chinese have legends of the Isles of the Blest, which lie 700 miles from the Celestial Kingdom out in the Yellow Sea, and gleam in everlasting beauty, everlasting spring and everlasting gladness. The wizard Sun-Tshe is said once to have extorted from a good spirit the secret of their situation, and revealed the great mystery to the emperor Tshe-Huan-Ti (219 B.C.). Then the noblest youths and the most beautiful maidens of the Celestial Kingdom set out to search for Paradise, and lo! it suddenly rose above the distant horizon, wrapped in roseate glow. But a terrible storm drove the longing voyagers away with cruel violence, and since then no human eye has seen the Isles of the Blest [after Paul d’Enjoy, in “La Revue”].[372]

This is the same conception of the floating mirage that we meet with again in the Norse term “Villuland” (from “villa” == illusion, mirage, glamour), which is found, for instance, in Björn Jónsson of Skardsá applied to the fabulous country of Frisland (south of Iceland); it is called in one MS. “Villi-Skotland,” which is probably the mythical “Irland it Mikla” (Great-Ireland), since the Irish were called Scots. Are Mársson, according to the Landnáma, reached this “Villuland” and stayed there. It is remarkable that his mother Katla, according to the Icelandic legend in the poem “Kǫtlu-draumr” (Katla’s dream), was stolen by an elf-man, who kept her for four nights.[373] It may be this circumstance that led to its being Are who found the elf-country to the west of Ireland, although it is true that according to the Kǫtlu-draumr it was his one-year-older brother Kar who was the offspring of the four nights; but the elf-man had asked that his son should be called Are.

Fairylands which rise and fall

There are many such fairylands along the coast of Norway, which used to rise up from the sea at night, but sank in the daytime.[374] If one could bring fire or steel upon them, then the spell was broken and they remained up; but the huldrefolk avenged themselves on the person who did this, and he was turned to stone; therefore it was usually accomplished by domestic animals which swam across to these islands. Many of them have come up in this way, and for this reason they frequently bear the names of animals. The most probable explanation is doubtless that they were originally given the names of animals from a similarity in shape, or some other reason; and the myth is a later interpretation of the name. It was often a pig, preferably a sow, that had acquired the habit of swimming over to the fairyland, and it frequently had litters there; the people of the farm, who noticed that it occasionally stayed away, bound steel upon it, and the island was hindered from sinking; “therefore such fairy islands are often called Svinöi.” In this way Svinöi in Brönöi (in Nordland, Norway) came up, as well as Svinöi in the Faroes, and doubtless it was the same with Svinöi or Landegode in Sunnmör. It was also through a sow that Tautra, in Trondhjemsfjord, was raised, besides Jomfruland, and the north-western part of Andöi (in Vesterålen). Nay, even Oland in Limfjord (Jutland) became visible through a sow with steel bound on it, which had a litter. Other islands, like Vega and Sölen, were raised by a horse or an ox, etc. Gotland was also a fairyland, but it stayed up through a man bringing fire to it.[375] Some fairy islands lie so far out at sea that no domestic animal has been able to swim over to them, and therefore they have not yet come up; such are Utröst, west of Lofoten, Sandflesa, west of Trænen, Utvega, west of Vega, Hillerei-öi, and Ytter-Sklinna, in Nordre Trondhjems Amt, and hidden fairylands off Utsire, off Lister, and to the south-west of Jomfruland.[376]

It is interesting that the notion of a sow being the cause of people coming into possession of fertile islands can also be illustrated from mediæval England. William of Malmesbury relates in his “De antiquitate Glastoniensis ecclesiæ” [cap. 1 and 2], which belongs to the twelfth century before 1143, that Glasteing “... went in search of his sow as far as Wellis, and followed her from Wellis by a difficult and boggy path, that is called ‘Sugewege,’ that is to say, ‘the sow’s way’; at last he found her occupied in suckling her young beneath the apple-tree beside the church of which we are speaking; from this are derived the names that have come down to our time, that the apples of this tree are called ‘ealdcyrcenes epple,’ that is to say, ‘the apples of the old church,’ and the sow ‘ealdcyrce suge.’ While other sows have four feet, this one, strangely enough, has eight. This Glasteing, then, who came to this island and saw that it was flowing with all good things, brought all his family and established himself there and dwelt there all his life. This place is said to be populated from his offspring and the race that sprang from him. This is taken from the ancient writings of the Britons.

“Of various names for this island. This island, then, was first called by the Britons ‘Ynisgwtrin’; later, when the Angles subdued the island, the name was translated into their language as ‘Glastynbury’ or Glasteing’s town, he of whom we have been speaking. The island also bears the famous name of ‘Avallonia.’ The origin of this word is the following: as we have related, Glasteing found his sow under an apple-tree by the old church; therefore he called ... the island in his language ‘Avallonia,’ that is ‘The isle of apples’ (for ‘avalla’ in British means ‘poma’ in Latin).... Or else the island has its name from a certain Avalloc, who is said to have dwelt here with his daughters on account of the solitude of the place.”[377]

This Somerset sow with its young and with eight legs, like Sleipner, must be Norse. The Norse myth of the sow must have found a favourable soil among the Celts, as according to the ideas of Celtic mythology the pig was a sacred animal in the religion of the Druids, specially connected with Ceridwen, the goddess of the lower world. The Celts must have heard of the pig that by the help of steel causes fairylands to remain visible; but regarded this as being connected with the animal’s sacred properties. It cannot have been an originally Celtic conception, otherwise we should meet with it in other Celtic legends. Moreover the island in this case is not invisible, nor has the sow any steel upon her; these are features that have been lost in transmission. On the other hand the incident of the sow becoming pregnant in the newly found land has been preserved.

In the ocean to the west of Ireland there lay, as already mentioned (p. 354), many enchanted islands. They are in part derived from classical and oriental myths; but the native fairies (the síd-people) and fairylands have been introduced here also (p. 371). Even in the lakes of Ireland there are hidden islands, marvellously fertile with beautiful flowers.[378] Giraldus Cambrensis (twelfth century) says that on clear days an island appeared to the west of Ireland, but vanished when people approached it. At last some came within bowshot, and one of the sailors shot a red-hot arrow on to it, and the island then remained fixed. The happy island “O’Brasil” (“Hy-Breasail,” see p. 357) west of Ireland appears above the sea once in every seventh year—“on the edge of the azure sea ...” and it would stay up if any one could cast fire upon it.[379]

It is no doubt possible that myths of “villulands” or “huldrelands” far away in the sea may have arisen in various places independently of one another;[380] they may easily be suggested by mirage or other natural phenomena, and ideas about happiness are universal among men. But through many of these myths may be traced features so similar that we can discern a connection with certainty and can draw conclusions as to a common origin of the same conceptions.

The epithet “the Lucky”

That Leif of all others, the discoverer of the fortunate land, should have received the unusual surname of “hinn Heppni” (the Lucky) is also striking. There is only one other man in the sagas who is called thus: Hǫgni hinn Heppni, and he belongs to the period of the Iceland land-taking, but is only mentioned in a pedigree. Just as according to ancient Greek ideas and in the oldest Irish legends it was only vouchsafed to the chosen of the gods or of fortune to reach Elysium or the isle of the happy ones, so Leif, who according to tradition was the apostle of Christianity in Greenland, must have been regarded by the Christians of Iceland as the favourite of God or of destiny, to whom it was ordained to see the land of fortune. It is just this idea of the chosen of fate that lies in the words “happ” and “heppinn.” That the name has such an origin is also rendered probable by the fact that the saga-tellers were evidently not clear as to the reason of Leif’s being so called, and it is sometimes represented as due to his having saved the shipwrecked crew (cf. pp. 270, 317), which is meaningless, since in that case it would be the rescued and not Leif who were lucky, and moreover rescue of shipwrecked sailors must have been an everyday affair. The saga-writers therefore knew that Leif had this surname, but the reason for it had in course of time been forgotten.

An interesting parallel to “Leifr hinn Heppni” has been brought to my notice by Moltke Moe in the Nordland “Lykk-Anders,” the name of the lucky brother who came to the fairyland Sandflesa, off Trænen in Helgeland.[381] It is important that this epithet of Lucky is thus only known in Norway in connection with fairyland.[382] That the underground people, “huldrefolk,” bring luck appears also in other superstitions.[383] He who is born with the cap of victory (Glückshaube, -helm, sigurkull, holyhow), which often seems to have the same effect as the fairy hat, is predestined to fortune and prosperity, like a Sunday child.

Another possible parallel to the lucky name is the monk “Felix” (i.e., happy, corresponding to “heppinn”) who occurs in widely diffused mediæval legends. He has a foretaste of the joys of heaven through hearing a bird of paradise; he thinks that only a few hours have passed, from morning to midday, while he is listening to it in rapture, though in reality a hundred years have gone by.[384] Moltke Moe considers it probable that in this case the name Felix may be due to a Germanic conception of the lucky one.

Moltke Moe sees another parallel—a literary one, to be sure—to Leif the Lucky and Lykk-Anders in the Olaf Ásteson of the “Draumkvæde” (Dream-Lay) which he explains as “Ástsonr” == the son of love, God’s beloved son. He is so called because he is so beloved that God has given him a glimpse of the future, so that he sees behind the gate of death.[385]

All this, therefore, points in the same direction.

The oldest authority, Adam of Bremen, untrustworthy

Even Adam of Bremen’s brief mention of Wineland (cf. pp. 195, 197) bears evident traces of being untrustworthy; thus he says that the self-grown vines in Wineland “give the noblest wine.” Even if wine could be produced from the small wild grapes, it would scarcely be noble, and who should have made it? It is not very likely that the Icelanders and Greenlanders who discovered the country had any idea of making wine. If we except this fable of the wine, and the name itself, which seems to be derived from Ireland (cf. p. 366), but may have been confused with the name of Finland[386] (cf. p. 198), then Adam’s statements about Wineland correspond entirely to Isidore’s description of the Insulæ Fortunatæ, and contain nothing new. Adam’s statement that the island was discovered by many (“multis”) does not agree with the Saga of Eric the Red, which only knows of two voyages thither, but agrees better with its being a well-known mythical country, to which many mythical voyages had been made, or with its being Finmark.[386] Although it may be uncertain whether Adam thought the ice- and mist-filled sea lay beyond Wineland (cf. p. 199), this bears a remarkable resemblance to similar Arab myths of islands that lay near the “Dark Sea” in the west (cf. chapter xiii.); while in any case it shows how myth is introduced into his description of distant regions, and there also he places the mythical abyss of the sea. If one reads through the conclusion of his account (pp. 192 ff.), it will be seen how he takes pains to get a gradual increase of the fabulous: first Iceland with the black inflammable ice and the “simple” communistic inhabitants; then, opposite to the mountains of Svedia, Greenland, with predatory inhabitants who turn blue-green in the face from the sea-water; then Halagland, which is made into an island in the ocean, and which is called holy on account of the midnight sun, of which he gives erroneous information taken from older authors (cf. p. 194, note 2); then Wineland (the Fortunate Isles), with Isidore’s self-grown vines and unsown corn; and then finally he reaches the highest pitch (unless in Harold’s voyage to the abyss of the sea) in the tale of the Frisian noblemen’s voyage to the North Pole, which does not contain a feature that is not borrowed from fables and myths (cf. chapter xii.); now this expedition started from Bremen, where he lived; and he mentions two archbishops as his authorities for it. When we find that all these statements about the northern islands and countries, both before and after the mention of Wineland, are more or less fables or plagiarisms; when we further see what he was capable of relating about countries that lay nearer, and about which he might easily have obtained information—for instance, his Land of Women on the Baltic, to which he transfers the Amazons and Cynocephali of the Greeks (cf. p. 187), and his Wizzi or Albanians or Alanians (sic) with battle-array of dogs (!) in Russia [iv. 19][387]—is it credible that what he says about the most distant country, Wineland, should form the only exception in this concatenation of fable and reminiscence, and suddenly be genuine and not borrowed from Isidore, to whom it bears such a striking resemblance? It must be more probable that he had heard a name, Wineland, perhaps confused with Finland, and in the belief that this meant the land of wine, he then, quite in harmony with what he has done in other places (cf. Kvænland), transferred thereto Isidore’s description of the “Insulæ Fortunatæ.”

When therefore Norsemen (like a Leif Ericson) really found new countries in the west, precisely in the quarter where the mythical “Vínland hit Góða” (or “Insulæ Fortunatæ”) should be according to Irish legend, this was simply a proof that the country did exist; and the tales and ideas about it were transferred to the newly discovered land.

END OF VOL. I.

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INDEX

Aasen, I., i. 352; ii. 9 Abalus, Island of, i. 70, 71, 72, 73, 118, 365 Ablabius, i. 129, 142, 144, 155 Abû Hâmid, ii. 145, 146 Abyss, at the edge of the world, i. 12, 84, 157-9, 195, 199; ii. 150, 154, 240 Adam of Bremen, i. 21, 59, 84, 112, 135, 159, 179, 182, 183, 184-202, 204, 206, 229, 252, 258, 303, 312, 353, 362, 363, 365, 367, 382-4; ii. 2, 11, 26, 29, 31, 32, 58, 63, 64, 65, 101, 143, 147-54, 165, 168, 177, 192, 214, 224, 237, 238, 240, 243, 278, 284 “Adogit,” Northern people, i. 131-3, 143, 194 Ææa, Isle of, i. 13 Ælian, i. 12, 16, 17 Æningia, i. 101, 104 Æstii (see Esthonians) Æthicus Istricus, i. 154-5, 187, 188 “Ætternis stapi” (the tribal cliff), i. 18-9 Africa, Supposed connection with Wineland, i. 326; ii. 1-2, 29, 61, 240, 248, 280 Agathemerus, i. 44 Agricola, i. 107-8, 117 Agrippa, i. 97, 106 Ahlenius, K., i. 43, 93, 104, 112, 131 Aithanarit, i. 144, 153, 154 Alani, i. 188, 383 Albertus Magnus, ii. 158, 163, 178, 234 Albi, mappamundi at, ii. 183 Albion (see Britain), i. 38, 39, 117 Aleutians, ii. 69, 71 Alexander the Great, i. 19, 182, 363; ii. 57, 206, 207, 213 Alexander VI., Pope, Letter from, on Greenland (1492-3), ii. 106, 121-2 Alexander, Sir William, ii. 3 Alfred, King, i. 104, 160, 169-81, 204, 252; ii. 156, 243 Al-Gazâl, voyage to the land of the Magǵûs, ii. 200-2 Algonkin tradition, ii. 7-8, 93; lacrosse among, ii. 40 Alociæ, i. 118, 119, 132 Amalcium (northern sea), i. 98-9, 105 Amazons, i. 20, 87, 88, 112, 114, 150, 154, 159, 160, 186, 187, 189, 198, 356, 383; ii. 64, 188, 197, 206, 209, 214 Amber, i. 14, 19, 22, 23, 27, 31-4, 70, 71, 72, 96, 101, 106, 109-10; ii. 207 Amdrup, Captain, i. 290 America, discovered by the Norsemen, i. 234, 248, 312; ii. 22, 61, 63 Ammianus Marcellinus, i. 44, 123 Anaxagoras, i. 12 Anaximander of Miletus, i. 11 Anaximenes, i. 11, 128 Angles, i. 180 Anglo-Portuguese expeditions of 1501, ii. 331-2, 357; of 1502, ii. 332-4; of 1503, ii. 334-5; of 1504, ii. 335 Angmagsalik, Greenland, i. 261, 263, 282, 290, 291; ii. 73 “Anostos,” The gulf, i. 17, 158; ii. 150, 240 Ants, fabulous, i. 154, 336; ii. 197 Apollo, worshipped among the Hyperboreans, i. 16, 18, 19 Apollonius of Rhodes, i. 19, 44 Appulus, Guillelmus, ii. 162 Arabs, i. 362, 366; ii. 57; their trade with North Russia, ii. 143-7, 194; their culture, ii. 194-5; possible exchange of ideas with the Irish, ii. 207; Arab geographers, ii. 194-214 Arab myths, i. 382; ii. 10, 51, 197, 206-8, 213-4; affinity to Irish, ii. 207 Arctic, origin of the word, i. 8; Arctic Circle, i. 53, 55-7, 62, 76, 117 Arctic Ocean, Voyages in, i. 287; ii. 177 (see also Polar Sea) Are Frode (Islendingabók), i. 165-6, 201, 253-4, 257, 258-60, 312, 313, 331, 332, 353, 354, 366, 367, 368; ii. 11, 16, 26, 58, 60, 77-8, 82, 86, 91 Are Mársson, voyage to Hvítramannaland, i. 331-2, 353-4, 377; ii. 42, 43, 46, 50 Argippæans, i. 23, 88, 114, 155 Arimaspians, i. 16, 19, 98 Arimphæi, i. 88; ii. 188 Aristarchus of Samos, i. 47, 77 Aristeas of Proconnesus, i. 19 Aristotle, i. 28, 40, 41, 44, 76, 182; ii. 48, 194 Arnbjörn Austman, lost in Greenland, i. 283 Arngrim Jónsson, i. 263; ii. 79 “Arochi” (or “Arothi”; see Harudes), i. 136, 148 Asbjörnsen, i. 381 Askeladden, Tale of, i. 341 Assaf Hebræus, ii. 200 Assyria, supposed communication with the North, i. 35, 36 “Astingi,” or “Hazdingi” (Haddingjar, Hallinger), i. 104 Athenæus, i. 46, 351 Atlamál en grœnlenzku, i. 273 Atlantic Ocean, i. 10, 39, 40, 77, 78, 252, 315, 316, 346; ii. 154, 293, 307, 308 Atlantis, i. 376; ii. 293 Aubert, Karl, ii. 253 “Augandzi,” i. 136 Austlid, Andreas, i. 340 Avallon, Isle of, i. 72, 365-6, 379; ii. 20 d’Avezac, M. P., i. 362; ii. 216, 290 Avienus, Rufus Festus, i. 37-42, 68, 83, 123, 128, 130 Aviones, i. 95, 118 Ayala, Pedro de, adjunct to the Spanish Ambassador in London, ii. 295, 297, 298, 299, 301, 310, 311, 324, 325-6 Azores, discovered, ii. 292; expeditions from, ii. 293, 345, 346, 347 “Bacallaos,” name for Newfoundland, ii. 329, 337, 339 Bacon, Roger, ii. 215, 249 Baffin Land, i. 322, 323; ii. 41 Baffin’s Bay, i. 248, 250, 304, 305, 308, 309; ii. 41, 72 Bahlûl, Ibn al-, ii. 197 Balcia, Island of, i. 71, 72, 99, 100, 101, 185 Balder, i. 372 Baltic, amber from, i. 14, 22, 32, 34, 35, 96; ancient names for, and ideas of, i. 93, 99, 100, 105, 109, 121, 131, 167, 169, 185; ii. 210, 211, 219; representation of in mediæval cartography, ii. 219, 224, 227, 257, 269, 284, 286; overland communication with the Black Sea, i. 244; ii. 199 Basilia, island, i. 70, 71, 99 Basques, as whalers, ii. 159-62 Bastarni (Bastarnæ), i. 111, 112, 113, 114 Batûta, Ibn, ii. 144, 145 Baumgartner, A., i. 193 Baumstark, A., i. 113 Baunonia, Island of, i. 70, 98 Bavarian geographer, The, i. 167 Bayeux tapestry, i. 239, 248, 249; ii. 237, 239 Bears, Polar, i. 191, 192, 323; ii. 72, 112, 177, 191 Beatus map, i. 198, 199; ii. 184, 185-6 Beauvois, E., ii. 40, 90 Beazley, C. R., ii. 215, 295 Bede, i. 151, 184, 193, 194, 199; ii. 20, 156 Behaim, Martin, ii. 86, 287-9, 359, 372 Beheim, Michel, i. 226; ii. 85, 86, 111, 117, 144, 270 Belcæ, or “Belgæ,” i. 89, 92 Benedikson, E., i. 59 Beormas, i. 171, 173-5, 214, 218, 219, 222; ii. 135 (see also Bjarmas) Beowulf, i. 234, 372 Bérard, V., i. 348, 371, 379 Bergen, ii. 80, 120, 122, 125, 157, 169, 178, 210, 220, 221, 222, 260, 261, 264, 265, 266, 281, 286 Berger, H., i. 11, 12, 43, 75 “Bergos,” island, i. 106, 107 Bering Strait, i. 212, 223; ii. 68, 69, 84 Berneker, Prof., ii. 175-6 “Berricen” (or “Nerigon”), i. 53, 57-8, 106, 107 Bethmann and Waitz, i. 139 Bexell, ii. 56 Bianco, Andrea, map of Europe (1436), ii. 267, 282 Bible, The, i. 125, 126, 153, 184, 338, 358, 363; ii. 45, 46, 184, 185 Birds, used to find position at sea, i. 250-1, 257, 318 Bîrûnî, ii. 199, 200 Bishops of Greenland, i. 273, 283; ii. 29, 30-1, 98-9, 106, 108, 113-4, 121, 122, 134 Biskupa Sögur, i. 284; ii. 8 Bjarmas (see also Beormas), ii. 135-40, 167 Bjarmeland (Northern Russia), i. 173-5, 288; ii. 135-42, 154, 164, 165, 166, 168, 172, 237, 268; “Farther Bjarmeland,” ii. 165-6 Bjarne Grimolfsson, Wineland voyager, i. 319, 320, 326, 329, 330; ii. 20 Bjarne Herjulfsson, traditional discoverer of Wineland, i. 314, 317, 334; ii. 21 Bjarneyjar (Bear-islands), Greenland, i. 301, 302, 304, 321, 322, 323, 335, 336 Björn Breidvikingekjæmpe, i. 360; ii. 49-50, 53, 54, 56 Björn Einarsson Jorsalafarer, ii. 82, 106, 112, 113 Björn Jónsson of Skardsá (Annals of Greenland), i. 263, 282-3, 288, 292, 295, 299, 301, 308, 309, 321, 377; ii. 35, 37, 82, 83, 239 Björn Thorleifsson, shipwrecked in Greenland, ii. 82 Björnbo, Dr. A. A., i. 200, 201, 202, 297; ii. 2, 31, 32, 116, 123, 127, 132, 147, 154, 193, 220, 221, 223, 224, 225, 226, 233, 234, 240, 249, 250, 253, 261, 262, 264, 273, 277, 278, 281, 283, 284, 287, 289, 332, 353, 368, 369, 370, 374, 375 Björnbo and Petersen, i. 226; ii. 85, 123, 124, 127, 219, 231, 234, 249, 250, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 258, 262, 263, 267, 273, 275, 277, 377 Bláserkr (Greenland), i. 267, 291-6 Blom, O., ii. 8 Boas, F., ii. 69, 70 Boats of hides (coracles, &c.), in the Œstrymnides, i. 38, 39; Scythians, Saxons, &c., i. 154, 242; Greenlanders’, i. 305; Irish, ii. 92; Skrælings’, in Wineland, i. 327; ii. 10, 19; in Trondhjem cathedral, ii. 85, 89, 117, 269, 270; in Irish tales, i. 336; ii. 20; in Newfoundland (?), ii. 367; Eskimo, see Kayaks and Women’s Boats Bobé, Louis, ii. 126 Borderie, A. de la, i. 234 Borgia mappamundi, ii. 284-5 Bornholm, i. 169, 180; ii. 204, 265 Bothnia, Gulf of, i. 169, 187; ii. 269; in mediæval cartography, ii. 219 “Boti,” i. 87 Bran, Voyage of, i. 198, 354, 356, 365, 370; ii. 56 Brandan, Legend of, i. 281-2, 334, 337, 344, 345, 358-364, 366, 376; ii. 9, 10, 13, 18, 19, 43-5, 50, 51, 61, 64, 75, 151, 206, 214, 228-9, 234 Brattalid, in Greenland, i. 268, 270, 271, 275, 317, 319, 320, 331 Brauns, D., i. 377; ii. 56 “Brazil,” Isle of (Hy Breasail, O’Brazil, &c.), i. 3, 357, 379; ii. 30, 228-30, 279, 294-5, 318; expeditions to find, ii. 294-5, 301, 325 Breda, O. J., ii. 31 Brenner, O., i. 58 Brinck (Descriptio Loufodiæ), i. 378 Bristol, trade with Iceland, ii. 119, 279, 293; Norwegians living at, ii. 119, 180; expeditions sent out from, ii. 294-5, 298, 301, 304, 325, 326, 327, 330, 331 Britain, i. 193, 234, 240, 241; visited by Pytheas, i. 49, 50-3; Cæsar on, i. 79-80; Mela on, i. 97; Pliny on, ii. 106; Ptolemy on, i. 117; in mediæval cartography, ii. 220, 227 Brittany, cromlechs in, i. 22; tin in, i. 23, 26, 27, 29-31, 38-42 Broch, Prof. Olaf, ii. 142, 175, 176 Brögger, A. W., i. 14 Brönlund, Jörgen, i. 2-3 Bruun, D., i. 164, 270, 271, 274, 275 Bugge, Prof. A., i. 136, 137, 138, 146, 163, 164, 166, 170, 173, 234, 245, 246, 258, 297, 304; ii. 7, 55, 80, 168, 201 Bugge, Sophus, i. 93, 94, 103, 132, 134, 135, 136, 138, 146, 148, 207, 273; ii. 27, 28, 175 Bulgarians of the Volga, ii. 142-5, 195, 200, 210 Bunbury, E. H., i. 30, 107 “Burgundians” (== Bornholmers ?), i. 169, 180 Burrough, Stephen, ii. 173 Cabot, John, i. 3, 115, 312; ii. 130, 295-330, 333, 343, 374, 377; settles at Bristol, ii. 297; voyage of 1496, ii. 299-301; voyage of 1497, ii. 301-23; voyage of 1498, ii. 311, 324-8, 349; his discovery premature, ii. 343 Cabot, Sebastian, ii. 129, 130, 295-6, 299, 301-2, 308, 319, 326, 329, 330, 332, 333, 336-43; reported voyage of 1508-9, ii. 336-40; doubtful voyage of 1516 or 1517, ii. 340-2; his credibility, ii. 296, 298, 303, 329, 338-40; map of 1544, attributed to, ii. 303, 309, 310, 314-5, 319-20 Cæsar, C. Julius, i. 39, 40, 79-80, 92, 242 Callegari, G. V., i. 43, 58, 59 Callimachus, i. 375 Callisthenes (Pseudo-), ii. 213, 234 Calypso, i. 347, 355, 370; ii. 43 “Cananei,” i. 154-5 Canary Isles, i. 117, 348-50, 362, 376; ii. 2 Canerio map (1502-07), ii. 368 Cannibalism, among the Irish, Scythians, Celts, Iberians, i. 81; Issedonians, i. 81; Massagetæ, i. 81, 148; in Scandinavia, i. 149 Cantino, Alberto, his map of 1502, ii. 316, 350-1, 355, 361, 362, 364, 365, 368-74; his letter of Oct. 1501, ii. 349-52, 360, 361, 362, 363, 367, 372 Canto, Ernesto do, ii. 331 Cape Breton, i. 324, 329, 335; ii. 309, 312, 314, 315, 316, 317, 319, 321, 322; John Cabot’s probable landfall in 1497, ii. 314-15 Capella, Marcianus, i. 123, 126, 184, 188, 195, 197, 334 Carignano, Giovanni da, compass-chart by, ii. 220-2, 227, 235 “Carte Pisane,” ii. 220 Carthage, Sea-power of, i. 45, 75 Caspian Sea, i. 10, 74, 76, 122; ii. 142, 183, 195, 197, 213 Cassiodorus, i. 120, 128-30, 132, 137, 138, 142, 154, 155, 203 Cassiterides, i. 23, 24, 25, 27-9, 89; ii. 47, 48 Catalan Atlas, mappamundi of 1375, ii. 233, 266, 292 Catalan compass-chart at Florence, ii. 231, 232-3, 235 Catalan compass-chart (15th century) at Milan, ii. 279, 280 Catalan sailors and cartographers (see Compass-charts), ii. 217 Catapult, used by the Skrælings, i. 327; ii. 6-8, 92 Cattegat, The, i. 93, 100, 101, 102, 105, 169, 180 “Cauo de Ynglaterra” on La Cosa’s map, ii. 314-5, 317, 321-2; probably Cape Breton, ii. 314; or Cape Race (?), ii. 321-2 Celts, i. 19, 41, 42, 68, 81, 208; early Celtic settlement of the Faroes, i. 162-4; of Iceland, i. 167, 258; possible Celtic population in Scandinavia, i. 210; mythology of the, i. 379 Chaldeans, i. 8, 47 Chancellor, Richard, ii. 135 Chinese myths of fortunate isles, i. 377; ii. 213 Christ, The White, ii. 44, 45, 46 Christ, Wilhelm, i. 14, 37 Christianity introduced in Iceland, i. 260, 332; introduced in Greenland, i. 270, 272, 357, 332, 380; decline of, in Greenland, ii. 38, 100-2, 106, 113, 121 Christian IV. of Denmark, ii. 124, 178 Christiern I. of Denmark, ii. 119, 125, 127, 128, 132, 133, 134, 345 Chukches, i. 212 Church, ii. 301 Cimbri, i. 14, 21, 82, 85, 91, 94, 99, 100, 101, 118, 145 Cimmerians, i. 13, 14, 21, 79, 145 Circumnavigation, Idea of, i. 77, 79; ii. 271, 291-3, 296-7 Clavering, ii. 73 Clavus, Claudius, i. 226, 303; ii. 11, 17, 85, 86, 89, 117, 248-76, 284; his Nancy map and text, ii. 249, 250, 253, 255-69; his later map and Vienna text, ii. 250, 251, 252-3, 254, 265-76; his methods, ii. 252-3, 259-61; his influence on cartography, ii. 276-9, 335, 368, 369, 370, 371 Cleomedes, i. 44, 52, 53, 55, 57, 134 Codanovia, island, i. 91, 93-4, 103 Codanus, bay, i. 90-5, 101, 102, 103, 105, 118 Collett, Prof. R., i. 345; ii. 91 Collinson, R., ii. 129 Columbus, i. 3, 77, 79, 115, 116, 312, 376; ii. 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 300, 307, 310, 325 Compass, Introduction of, i. 248; ii. 169, 214, 215-6; variation of, ii. 217, 307-8, 370-1 Compass-charts, ii. 215-36, 265, 279, 280, 282, 308, 313; development of, ii. 215-8; limits of, ii. 218 Congealed or curdled sea, beyond Thule, i. 65-9, 70, 100, 106, 121, 165, 181, 195, 363, 376; ii. 149, 200, 231 Connla the Fair, Tale of, i. 371 Contarini, G., ii. 303, 336, 337, 338, 342, 343 Converse, Harriet Maxwell, i. 377 Cornwall, Tin in, i. 23, 29, 31 Corte-Real, Gaspar, ii. 130, 328, 330, 331, 332, 347-53, 354, 357, 358-66, 373; letters patent to (1500), ii. 347; voyage of 1500, ii. 360; voyage of 1501, ii. 347-53, 360-75; his fate, ii. 353, 375; his discoveries, ii. 354-5, 362, 364 Corte-Real, João Vaz, unhistorical expedition attributed to, ii. 359 Corte-Real, Miguel, ii. 353, 360, 361; letters patent to, ii. 353, 355, 376; voyage of 1502 or 1503, ii. 353, 376; probably reached Newfoundland, ii. 376; his fate, ii. 376 Corte-Real, Vasqueanes, refused leave to search for his brothers, ii. 377 Corte-Real, Vasqueanes IV., reported expedition of, in 1574, ii. 378 Cosa, Juan de la, map by, ii. 302, 309-18, 321, 374; represents Cabot’s discoveries of 1497, ii. 311-2 Cosmas Indicopleustes, i. 126, 127, 128; ii. 183 Costa, B. T. de, ii. 129, 214 “Cottoniana” mappamundi, i. 180, 182, 183; ii. 192-3, 208, 220, 284 Cottonian Chronicle, ii. 303, 324, 326 Crassus, Publius, visits the Cassiterides, i. 27 Crates of Mallus, i. 44, 78-9 Croker, T. Crofton, i. 379 Cromlechs, Distribution of, i. 22, 239 Cronium, Mare, i. 65, 100, 106, 121, 182, 363, 376 Crops, in Thule, i. 63; in Britain, i. 63; in Greenland, i. 277 Cuno, J. G., i. 59 Cwên-sæ̂, i. 169 Cyclopes, i. 189, 196; ii. 10, 147, 148, 238 Cylipenus, i. 101, 104, 105 Cynocephali, i. 154-5, 159, 187, 189, 198, 383 Cystophora cristata (bladder-nose seal), i. 276, 286 Daae, L., i. 226; ii. 125, 129 Dalorto (or Dulcert), Angellino, ii. 226-30; his map of 1325, ii. 177, 219, 226, 229, 235, 236; his map of 1339 (Dulcert), ii. 229, 230, 235, 265, 266 Damastes of Sigeum, i. 16 Danes, i. 94, 121, 136, 139, 142, 143, 145, 146, 153, 167, 169, 180, 188, 245; ii. 115, 161 Darkness, Sea of, i. 40-1, 192, 195, 199, 363, 382; ii. 149, 204, 206, 212 Dauciones, i. 120, 121 Davis Strait, i. 269 Dawson, S. E., ii. 295, 307, 319, 321 Debes, Lucas, i. 375 Delisle, L., ii. 161 Delos, i. 375 Delphi, i. 18, 19 Democritus, i. 127 Denmark, i. 82, 94, 180, 185, 234; ii. 179, 201, 204, 205, 208, 237; called “Dacia” on mediæval maps, ii. 188, 190, 222, 225; representation of, in mediæval cartography, ii. 219, 225, 235, 250, 286 Denys, Nicolas, ii. 3 Desimoni, C., ii. 325 Deslien’s map of 1541, ii. 322 Detlefsen, D., i. 43, 70, 71, 72, 83, 84, 85, 93, 97, 99, 102, 119 Dicæarchus, i. 44, 73 Dicuil, i. 58, 160, 162-7, 252, 362; ii. 43, 51, 229 Dihya, Ibn, ii. 200-1, 209 Dimashqî, ii. 212-3 Diodorus Siculus, i. 23, 29-30, 44, 50, 51, 52, 58, 63, 71, 80, 87, 90, 346; ii. 48 Dionysius Periegetes, i. 114-5, 123, 356; ii. 47, 48, 192 Dipylon vases, i. 236-7 Disappearing (fairy) islands, i. 370, 378-9; ii. 213 Disc, Doctrine of the earth as a, i. 8, 12, 126, 127, 153, 198; ii. 182 Disco Bay, Greenland, i. 298, 300, 301, 302, 306, 307; ii. 72 “Dœgr” (== half a 24 hours’ day), used as a measure of distance, i. 287, 310, 322, 335; ii. 166, 169, 170, 171 Dogs as draught-animals, ii. 69, 72, 145, 146 Down Islands (Duneyiar), i. 285, 286 Dozy, R., ii. 55, 200, 201 Dozy and de Goeje, ii. 51, 204 Drapers’ Company, Protest of, against Sebastian Cabot, ii. 302, 330, 338, 342 Draumkvæde, i. 367, 381 Driftwood, in Greenland, i. 299, 305, 307, 308; ii. 37, 96 Drusus (The elder Germanicus), i. 83 “Dumna,” island, i. 106, 117; ii. 257 Dumont d’Urville, i. 376 Dvina, river, i. 173, 174, 222; ii. 135, 136, 137, 142, 146, 164, 176 Eastern Settlement of Greenland, i. 263, 265, 267, 271, 272, 274, 275, 276, 296, 301, 302, 307, 310, 311, 321; ii. 71, 82, 90, 107, 108, 112, 116; decline of, ii. 95-100, 102 Ebstorf map, i. 102, 191; ii. 187 Edda, The older (poetic), i. 273 Edda, the younger (Snorra-Edda), i. 273, 298, 304, 342, 364 Eden, Richard, ii. 341 Edrisi, i. 182, 382; ii. 51-53, 202-8, 209, 210, 216; his map, ii. 192, 203, 208, 220, 284 Egede, Hans, ii. 40, 41, 74, 101, 104, 105, 106 Egil Skallagrimsson’s Saga, i. 175, 218 Egyptian myths, i. 347 Einar Sokkason, i. 283, 294 Einar Thorgeirsson, lost in Greenland, i. 284 Einhard, i. 167, 179, 180, 185 Elk (achlis), i. 105, 191 Elymus arenarius (lyme-grass), ii. 5 Elysian Fields, i. 347, 349, 351 Empedocles, i. 12, 127 England (see Britain), Arab geographers on, ii. 204, 211; maritime enterprise of, ii. 180, 294-5, 343; in mediæval cartography, ii. 218 English State document (1575) on North-West Passage, ii. 129-30, 132 “Engronelant,” ii. 277, 279, 373 d’Enjoy, Paul, i. 377 Eratosthenes of Cyrene, i. 20, 29, 44, 47, 52, 55, 61, 73, 75-7, 78, 82, 115; ii. 292 Eric Blood-Axe, ii. 136 Eric of Pomerania, ii. 118, 119 Eric the Red, i. 252, 256, 259, 262, 280, 288, 293, 318-21, 324, 330, 337, 344, 368; ii. 22, 77, 88; discovers Greenland, i. 260, 263, 266-70 Eric the Red, Saga of, i. 260, 266, 273, 291, 292, 293, 296, 310, 313, 314, 318, 322, 331, 332-5, 337, 338, 342, 343, 367, 382; ii. 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15, 22, 23, 24, 42, 43, 50, 59, 61, 89, 91, 206; its value as a historical document, ii. 62 Eric’s fjord (Greenland), i. 267, 268, 271, 275, 317, 318, 319, 321; ii. 112 Eric Upsi, bishop of Greenland, ii. 29-31 Eridanus, river, i. 31, 32, 34, 42 Eruli, i. 21, 94, 136, 137-8, 139-49, 153, 235, 245 Erythea, i. 9 Erythræan Sea, i. 10 Eskimo, i. 19, 51, 150, 212, 215, 216, 223, 231-2, 260, 298, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 368; ii. 10, 12, 16, 17, 19, 66-94, 102-6, 107, 111-2, 113-6, 333, 366-7; fairy-tales and legends of, ii. 8, 105, 115; ball-game among, ii. 40-1; distribution of, ii. 66-74; racial characteristics of, ii. 67-8; their culture, ii. 68-9, 91-2; Norse settlers absorbed by, ii. 100, 102-105, 106, 107-11, 117; unwarlike nature of, ii. 114, 115-6 Esthonians (Æstii, Osti), Esthonia, i. 69, 72, 104, 109, 131, 167, 169, 170, 181, 186; ii. 205 “Estotiland,” fictitious northern country, ii. 131 Eudoxus, i. 46 Eyrbyggja-saga, i. 313, 376; ii. 42, 46, 48, 50 Fabricius, A., ii. 55 Fabyan, Robert, Chronicle (quoted by Hakluyt), ii. 303, 324, 326, 333 Fadhlân, Ibn, ii. 143 Fairies, Names for, i. 372-3 Fairylands, Irish, i. 357, 370-1, 379; ii. 60; Norwegian, i. 369-70, 378; ii. 60, 213; laudatory names for, i. 374; characteristics of, i. 375-9; ii. 213-4 Faqîh, Ibn al-, ii. 197 Farewell, Cape, i. 261, 267, 280, 282, 284, 288, 291, 295, 307, 316; ii. 73 Faroes, The, i. 254, 255, 257, 316, 324, 362; ii. 51, 229, 262; discovered by the Irish, i. 162-4, 233; Irish monks expelled from, i. 252, 253; early Celtic population in, i. 164, 253 Felix, The monk, in mediæval legend, i. 381 Fenni (Finns), i. 109, 112, 113, 114, 120, 149, 203 Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, letter from, ii. 300 Fernald, M. L., ii. 3, 5-6 Fernandez, João (called “Lavorador”), ii. 331-2, 356; letters patent to (1499), ii. 346, 356; probably sighted Greenland (1500), ii. 356, 357, 375; took part in Bristol expedition (1501), ii. 331, 356, 357; Greenland (Labrador) named after him, ii. 358 Filastre, Cardinal, ii. 249-50, 278 Finland (see Kvænland), i. 206, 209, 210, 214; the name confused with Vinland, i. 198, 382; ii. 31, 191; and with Finmark, i. 382; ii. 191, 205; in mediæval cartography, ii. 224 Finmark, i. 61, 173, 175, 177, 191, 198, 204, 210, 213, 220, 222, 225; ii. 86, 141, 163, 164, 172, 178, 179, 205, 211, 237; the name confused with Finland, i. 382; ii. 32, 191, 205; in mediæval cartography, ii. 221 “Finn,” The name, i. 198, 205-7, 210 “Finnaithæ” (Finnédi, Finvedi) (see Finns), i. 135, 137, 189, 198, 203, 204, 206, 382 Finn mac Cumhaill, i. 363; ii. 45 Finns, i. 109, 112, 113, 114, 120, 135, 136, 137, 149, 171, 173-8, 189, 198, 203-32, 382; ii. 68, 143; Horned Finns, ii. 167 “Finns,” in southern Scandinavia, i. 103, 203, 205, 206-11; ii. 159 Finn’s booths (Finnsbuðir), in Greenland, i. 283, 296, 305 “Finnur hinn Friði,” Faroese lay of, ii. 33-4 Fisher, J., ii. 33, 121, 229, 249, 276, 277, 278, 279, 281 Fischer, M. P., ii. 161 Fischer, Theobald, ii. 216, 220, 230, 234 Fishing Lapps, i. 204, 205, 207, 218, 221, 223-32 Flateyjarbók, i. 254, 283, 313, 304, 317, 318, 324, 329, 331, 334, 338, 340, 343, 344, 359, 360; ii. 4, 14, 15, 18, 21, 22, 23, 25, 59, 61 Fletcher, Giles, i. 226 Floamanna-Saga, i. 280, 281; ii. 46, 81 Floating islands, Legends of, i. 375-7; ii. 213-4 Floki Vilgerdarson, sails to Iceland, i. 255, 257, 269 Florus, L. Annæus, i. 350 Forbiger, A., i. 58, 102 Forster, i. 179 Fortunate Isles (Insulæ Fortunatæ), i. 117, 198, 334, 345-53, 367, 370, 372, 373, 382-4; ii. 1-6, 24, 31, 42, 55, 59-61, 64, 191, 228, 280, 304 Fortunate Lake, Irish myth of, ii. 229-30 Foster-Brothers’ Saga, i. 276, 320; ii. 9, 18 Frähn, C. M., ii. 143, 145 Franks Casket, The, i. 176 Freydis, daughter of Eric the Red, i. 320, 328, 332, 333; ii. 11, 51 Friesland, Frisians, i. 95, 153, 205 Friis, J. A., i. 372 Friis, Peder Claussön, i. 224, 227-9, 232, 369; ii. 153, 158, 178, 268 Frisian noblemen’s polar expedition, i. 195-6, 200, 383; ii. 147-8 Frisius, Gemma, ii. 129, 132 Frisland, fabulous island south of Iceland, i. 377; ii. 131 Fritzner, ii. 9 Furðustrandir, i. 273, 312, 313, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 334, 336, 337, 339, 357; ii. 24, 36 Fyldeholm (island of drinking), i. 352 Gadir (Gadeira, Gades, Cadiz), i. 24, 27, 28, 30, 36, 37, 66, 79 Galvano, Antonio, ii. 336, 337, 338, 354, 364, 376 Gandvik (the White Sea), i. 218-9, 228; ii. 136-8, 164, 223, 237, 239 Gardar, discoverer of Iceland, i. 255-7, 263 Garðar, Greenland, i. 272, 273, 275, 311; ii. 106, 107, 108, 121, 122 “Gautigoth” (see Goths), i. 135 Gautrek’s Saga, i. 18-9 Geelmuyden, Prof. H., i. 52, 54, 311; ii. 23 Geijer, E. G., i. 60, 102, 111, 131, 205, 207 Gellir Thorkelsson, i. 366 Genoese mappamundi (1447 or 1457), ii. 278, 286, 287 Geminus of Rhodes, i. 43, 44, 53, 54, 57, 63, 64 Geographia Universalis, i. 382; ii. 32, 177, 188-91, 220, 227, 339 Gepidæ, i. 139, 142, 153 Gerfalcons, Island or land of, ii. 208, 227, 266, 289 Germania, i. 69, 71, 73, 87, 90, 95, 101, 108-14, 154, 169; Roman campaigns in, i. 81, 83, 85, 97 Germanicus, The younger, i. 83 Germanus, Nicolaus, ii. 251, 276-9, 288, 290, 373 Germany, coast of, in mediæval cartography, ii. 219, 257 Gesta Francorum, i. 234 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, ii. 340 Gildas, i. 234, 364 Ginnungagap, i. 12, 84, 158; ii. 35, 150, 154, 239-41 Giraldus Cambrensis, i. 379; ii. 151, 220, 245 Gisle Oddsson’s Annals, ii. 82, 100-2, 109 Gissur Einarsson, Bishop, i. 285 Gjessing, H., ii. 31 Glæsaria, island, i. 101, 106 Glastonbury, Legend of sow at, i. 378-9 “Gli,” mythical island, i. 364 Globes, used by the Greeks, i. 78; introduced by Toscanelli, ii. 287; Behaim’s, ii. 287-9; Laon globe, ii. 290; used by Columbus, ii. 287; and Cabot, ii. 304, 306 Gnomon, The, i. 11, 45-6 Godthaab, Greenland, i. 271, 304, 307, 321; ii. 73, 74 Goe, month of, i. 264, 265 Goeje, M. de, i. 344, 362; ii. 51, 194, 197, 198 Goes, Damiam de, ii. 354, 366, 376, 377 Gokstad ship, i. 246 Gomara, Francesco Lopez de, ii. 129, 130, 131, 336, 337, 354, 364 Gongu-Rólv’s kvæði, i. 356 Göta river, i. 131; ii. 190, 205 Göter (Gauter), i. 120, 135, 141, 144, 147; ii. 190 Goths (Gytoni, Gythones, Getæ), i. 14, 21, 71, 120, 129, 130, 135, 137, 139, 145, 147, 153; ii. 143, 190 Gotland, i. 121, 180, 378; ii. 125, 237; in mediæval cartography, ii. 219, 221, 224, 233, 265 Gourmont, Hieronymus, map of Iceland, ii. 122-3, 127 Graah, Captain, i. 297; ii. 104 Grail, Legends of the, i. 382 Grampus, i. 50-1 Granii, i. 136 Grape Island (Insula Uvarum), i. 358, 361, 363, 365, 366 Greenland, i. 184, 192, 194, 197, 199, 200, 201, 215, 223, 252, 315-21, 322; ii. 1, 5, 12, 25, 36, 38, 40-2, 66-94, 95-134, 167, 169, 177, 244, 345, 366; Eskimo of, ii. 71-5; discovered and settled by Norwegians, i. 258-78; estimated population of settlements, i. 272; conditions of life in i. 274-8, 319; ii. 96-7; voyages along the coasts of, i. 279-311; glaciers (inland ice) of, i. 288-95, 301, 308; ii. 246-7; decline of Norse settlements in, ii. 90, 95-100; last voyage to (from Norway), ii. 117; last ship from, ii. 118; geographical ideas of, ii. 237-40, 246-8, 254-5, 259-62, 270-6, 278, 279, 280; east coast of, i. 271-2, 279-96, 308; ii. 168, 170, 171, 238; uninhabited parts (ubygder) of, i. 279-311, 320, 321; ii. 28, 166, 172; sixteenth-century discovery of, ii. 315, 332, 335, 352, 363, 364, 375; called Labrador, ii. 129, 132, 133, 315, 335, 353; in sixteenth-century maps, ii. 368-75 Gregory of Tours i. 234 “Greipar,” in Greenland, i. 298, 299, 300-1, 304 Grettis-saga, i. 313, 367 Griffins, i. 19, 254; ii. 263 Grim Kamban, i. 253 Grimm, J., i. 18, 94, 95, 355, 372; ii. 45, 56 Grimm, W., i. 373 Grip, Carsten, letter to Christiern III., ii. 126-8 Gripla, i. 288; ii. 35-6, 237, 239, 241 Gröndal, B., i. 371, 375 Grönlands historiske Mindesmærker, i. 262, 263, 271, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 288, 292, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 304, 305, 311, 333, 359, 377; ii. 1, 9, 14, 17, 22, 25, 31, 35, 46, 79, 82, 86, 100, 102, 106, 108, 112, 113, 117, 119, 120, 125, 127, 172, 237, 278 Grönlendinga-þáttr (see Flateyjarbók) Groth, Th., ii. 103 Grottasongr, i. 159 Gudleif’ Gudlaugsson, story of his voyage, ii. 49-50, 53-4; compared with Leif Ericson, ii. 50-1 Gudmund Arason’s Saga, i. 284 Gudmundsson, Jón, map by, ii. 34, 241 Gudmundsson, V., ii. 25 Gudrid, wife of Karlsevne, i. 318, 319, 320, 321, 329, 330, 333; ii. 14-5, 51 Guichot y Sierra, A., i. 376 Gulathings Law, ii. 140 Gulf Stream, i. 251; ii. 54 Gunnbjörnskerries, i. 256, 261-4, 267, 280; ii. 276 Gunnbjörn Ulfsson, i. 256, 261-4, 267, 280, 296 Gustafson, Prof. G., i. 237, 240 Gutæ, i. 120 Guta-saga, i. 378 Gutones (see Goths), i. 70, 71, 72, 72, 93 Gytoni (see Goths), i. 71 Hægstad, Prof. M., ii. 242 Hægstad and Torp (Gamal-norsk Ordbog), ii. 9 Hæmodæ (“Acmodæ,” “Hæcmodæ”), i. 90, 106 “Hafsbotn” (the Polar Sea), i. 283, 303; ii. 137, 151, 165, 166, 167, 168, 171, 172, 237, 240 Hakluyt. R., i. 226; ii. 129, 132, 152, 261, 319, 321, 326, 333 Håkon Håkonsson’s Saga, i. 299; ii. 139, 141 Halichoerus grypus (grey seal), i. 217; ii. 91, 155 Halli Geit, Tale of, ii. 239 Hallinger, i. 104, 247 Hallstatt, i. 24, 36 Hâlogaland (Hålogaland, Hâlogi, Halgoland, Halagland, Halogia, Helgeland), i. 61, 62, 64, 132, 135, 138, 175, 179, 194, 197, 200, 231, 247, 264, 381, 383; ii. 64, 137, 139, 140, 142, 165, 168, 172; in mediæval cartography, ii. 227, 236 Halsingia, or Alsingia, i. 104 Hamberg, Axel, ii. 69 Hammershaimb, V. U., i. 356, 375; ii. 33 Hamy, ii. 220, 223, 229, 230, 234 Hanno, i. 37, 88, 350; ii. 45 Hans (John), king of Denmark, ii. 125, 128 Hanseatic League, ii. 99, 119, 125, 179, 218 Hansen, Dr. A. M., i. 149, 192, 206, 207, 208, 218, 221, 222, 228, 229, 230, 236-7, 239 Harold Fairhair, i. 253-4, 255, 258 Harold Gråfeld, ii. 136, 153, 154 Harold Hardråde, i. 185, 195, 201, 283, 383; ii. 147, 199; his voyage in the Polar Sea, i. 195; ii. 148-54 Harpoons, i. 214-7, 277; ii. 145-6, 156-63 Harrisse, Henry, ii. 132, 230, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 300, 302, 303, 304, 305, 309, 314, 315, 319, 320, 326, 327, 329, 331, 332, 333, 334, 336, 341, 347, 348, 349, 353, 358, 359, 360, 365, 374 Harudes (Charydes, Charudes, Horder), i. 85, 118, 136, 143, 148, 246 Hauksbók, i. 188, 251, 256, 257, 261, 262, 264, 268, 286, 291, 293, 308, 309, 322, 327, 331, 333, 353, 367, 369; ii. 10, 11, 166, 169, 172, 216, 261 Hebrides (Ebudes, Hebudes), i. 57, 90, 106, 117, 123, 158, 159, 160, 161, 234, 273, 316; ii. 151, 200 Hecatæus of Abdera, i. 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 98 Heffermehl, A. V., ii. 242 Heiberg, Prof. J., i. 219, 220 Heimskringla, i. 270, 313, 331; ii. 59, 137, 171, 239 Heiner, i. 138 Heinrich of Mainz, map by, ii. 185, 187 Helge Bograngsson, killed in Bjarmeland, ii. 139-40 Heligoland, i. 197 Helland, A., i. 226, 231, 369, 372, 373, 378, 381; ii. 46, 152, 177, 228 Helluland, i. 312, 313, 322, 323, 334, 336, 357; ii. 1, 23, 35-6, 61, 237 Helm, O., i. 14 Helsingland, Helsingers, i. 189; ii. 237 Henry V. of England, ii. 119 Henry VI. of England, ii. 119 Henry VII. of England, ii. 130, 298, 299, 302, 303, 322, 324, 326, 327, 331, 332, 333, 334, 337, 338, 340 Henry VIII. of England, ii. 319, 330, 334, 338, 341, 342, 343 Heraclitus, i. 12 “Herbrestr” (war-crash), ii. 8-9 Hereford map, i. 91, 92, 102, 154, 157, 190; ii. 186, 187 Hergt, G., i. 43, 51, 60, 65, 66, 67, 71, 72 Herla, mythical king of Britain, ii. 76 Hermiones, i. 91, 104 Hermits, in Irish legends, ii. 19, 43-6, 50 Herodotus, i. 9, 12, 20, 23, 24, 27, 31-2, 46, 76, 78, 81, 88, 114, 148, 155, 156, 161, 187 Hertzberg, Ebbe, ii. 38, 39, 40, 61, 93 Hesiod, i. 9, 11, 18, 42, 84, 348 Hesperides, i. 9, 161, 334, 345, 376; ii. 2, 61 Heyman, i. 342; ii. 8 Hielmqvist, Th., i. 381 Hieronymus, i. 151, 154 Higden, Ranulph (Polychronicon), i. 346, 382; ii. 31-2, 288-92, 220; his mappamundi, ii. 188, 189, 192 Hilleviones, i. 101, 104, 121 Himilco’s voyage, i. 29, 36-41, 68, 83 Himinrað (Hunenrioth, &c.), mountain in Greenland, i. 302-4; ii. 108 Hipparchus, i. 44, 47, 52, 56, 57, 73, 77-8, 87, 116; ii. 197 Hippocrates, i. 13, 88 Hippopods, i. 91 Hirri, i. 101 Historia Norwegiæ, i. 204, 229, 252, 255, 256, 257, 298; ii. 1, 2, 17, 29, 61, 79, 87, 88, 135, 151, 167, 168, 172, 222, 227, 235, 239, 240, 280 Hjorleif, settles in Iceland with Ingolf, i. 166, 252, 254, 255 Hoegh, K., ii. 31 Hoffmann, W. J., ii. 39, 40 Hofmann, C., i. 59 Holand, H. R., ii. 31 Holberg, Ludvig, ii. 118 Holm, G. F., i. 271, 274 Holz, G., i. 85, 102 Homer, i. 8, 10-11, 13, 14, 25, 33, 77, 78, 196, 347, 348, 371; ii. 53, 54, 160 Homeyer, C. G., i. 214 Hönen, Ringerike, Runic stone from, ii. 27-9, 58 Honorius Augustodunensis, i. 375 Honorius, Julius, i. 123; ii. 183 Horace, i. 349, 350-1 Horaisan, Japanese fortunate isle, ii. 56-7, 213 Horder (see Harudes), i. 85, 118, 136, 138, 143, 147, 209, 246 Horn, Georg, (Ulysses peregrinans), ii. 132, 133 Horses, Swedish, i. 135; in Greenland, i. 276 Hrabanus Maurus, i. 159, 167, 184 “Huldrefolk” (Norwegian fairies), i. 355, 356, 370-3, 381; ii. 12, 60 “Huldrelands” (see Fairylands) Humboldt, i. 363 Huns, i. 188 Hvarf point, in Greenland, i. 263, 267, 269, 279, 288, 290, 292, 294, 295, 303, 310, 315; ii. 169, 171, 261 Hvergelmer, i. 158, 159 Hvítramanna-land (the White Men’s Land), i. 312, 313, 330, 353, 366, 368, 376; ii. 2, 19, 42-56, 60, 61, 92; called Great Ireland, i. 330, 353, 366; ii. 42, 48; Are Mársson’s voyage to, i. 331-2, 353-4; ii. 42, 46, 50 Hvitserk glacier, in Greenland, i. 283, 286, 288, 291, 292, 294-5, 303; ii. 122, 123, 124, 127, 128 Hyperboreans, i. 13, 15-21, 79, 81, 88, 89, 98, 128, 187, 188, 348; ii. 188 Iberians, in British Isles, i. 26; in Brittany, i. 30; cannibalism among, i. 81 Ibrâhîm ibn Ja’qûb, i. 187 Iceland, i. 181-4, 192, 193-4, 197, 201, 248, 251, 262, 263, 267, 278, 285, 286, 289, 295, 305, 308, 324, 337, 353, 362, 374; ii. 43, 49, 102, 112, 169, 170, 191, 211, 242, 244, 245, 281; discovered by Irish monks, i. 59, 164-7, 233, 258; identified with Thule, i. 59-60, 164, 193; fables of ice in, i. 181, 183-4, 193; ii. 191; Norwegian settlement of, i. 252-8; called “Gardarsholm,” i. 255; called “Snowland,” i. 255; in mediæval cartography, ii. 225, 230, 231, 250, 262, 275, 279, 284, 286 Icelandic Annals (Islandske Annaler), i. 282, 284, 285, 305; ii. 25, 29, 36, 37, 82, 88, 99, 111, 112, 117, 118, 166, 172 Ictis, i. 29 “Illa verde,” on fifteenth and sixteenth century maps, ii. 279-81, 294, 318 Indian myths, i. 19, 92, 351, 356, 363; ii. 57, 213, 214 Indiana, North American, i. 327, 377; ii. 7, 12, 16, 23, 25, 68, 69, 90, 92, 93, 334, 367; lacrosse among, ii. 39-41, 93 Ingævones, i. 101 Ingimund Thorgeirsson, lost in Greenland, i. 284 Ingolf Arnarson, first Norse settler in Iceland, i. 252, 253, 254, 255, 257, 267 Ingolf’s Fjeld, Greenland, i. 291, 293, 294, 296 Ingram, Dr., i. 179 Ireland (Hierne, Hibernia, Juverna, Ivernia, Ibernia), i. 38, 57, 80, 81, 90, 117, 179, 192, 234, 253, 326; ii. 201, 211, 244, 245; connection with Iceland, i. 167, 258, 353; whaling in, ii. 156 Irgens, O., i. 248, 250 Irish monks, i, 162-7, 362; ii. 43; (“Papar”) in Iceland, i. 254, 258; ii. 77, 78 Irish myths, i. 281-2, 334, 336-9, 353-64, 370, 371; ii. 18, 19, 20, 43-5, 50, 53-4, 56, 60-1, 206, 207, 228-9, 234 Iroquois myth of floating island, i. 377 Isachsen, G., i. 300, 304, 306; ii. 168, 171 Isidorus Hispalensis, i. 44, 102, 151, 159, 160, 167, 184, 187, 345, 346, 347, 352, 353, 367, 382-4; ii. 2, 3-4, 58, 59, 64, 75, 183, 184, 185, 189, 247 Isles of the Blest, The, i. 9, 84, 348, 349, 351, 363, 370; ii. 59 Issedonians, i. 16, 19, 81 Italian sailors and cartographers (see Compass-charts), ii. 217 Itinéraire Brugeois, ii. 250, 256, 262, 263, 272 Itineraries, Roman, i. 116, 123, 153 Ivar Bárdsson’s description of Greenland, i. 262-3, 290, 292, 295, 302, 304; ii. 82, 87, 88, 102, 106, 107-11, 126, 166, 171, 241, 256, 261, 276 Ivar Bodde, probable author of the King’s Mirror, ii. 242 Jacob, G., i. 187, 284; ii. 145, 157, 202 Jakobsen, Dr. J., i. 163, 293, 374 Jan Mayen, i. 287; ii. 168, 169, 171 Japanese myth, ii. 56-8, 213 Jaqût, ii. 143, 144 Jaubert, P. A., ii. 204 Jenkinson, Anthony, ii. 152 Jensen, A. S., ii. 104 Jomard, ii. 220, 229 Jones Sound, i. 304, 306 Jónsbók, Icelandic MS., i. 316, 320, 329; ii. 24 Jónsson, Finnur, i. 166, 198, 256, 258, 260, 262, 265, 266, 273, 301, 305, 314, 331, 367; ii. 79, 107, 108, 167, 237 Jordanes, i. 104, 120, 129-38, 142, 143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 149, 153, 154, 155, 194, 203, 206; ii. 211 Jörgensen, N. P., i. 272, 274-5 Jotunheim, i. 303; ii. 147, 172, 238 Jovius, Paulus, ii. 111 Joyce, P. W., i. 360, 379 Julianehaab, Greenland, i. 267, 271, 274 Jutland, i. 69, 71, 72, 82, 85, 93, 94, 101, 102, 105, 117, 139, 144, 143, 147, 169, 180, 185, 246; ii. 192; in mediæval cartography, ii. 219, 224, 225, 235, 257, 265 Kähler, F., i. 43, 68 Kandalaks, river and gulf, i. 174, 218-9, 222 Kara Sea, i. 212 Karelians (Kirjals), Karelia, i. 175, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223; ii. 85, 137, 140, 146, 167, 173, 174; “Kareli infideles,” ii. 85, 117, 224, 225, 255, 262, 270, 271, 272 Karlsevne, Thorfinn, i. 260, 313, 318, 319, 331, 333, 336, 346, 354; ii. 14, 15, 18, 23, 25, 65; voyage to Wineland, i. 320-30, 334-45; battle with the Skrælings, i. 328; ii. 6-11 “Kassiteros,” Derivation of, i. 25-6 Kayaks, Eskimo, ii. 10, 68, 70, 72, 74, 85, 91, 92, 127, 270 Kemble, John M., i. 364 Kensington stone, Minnesota, ii. 31 Keyser, R., i. 58, 59, 60, 65, 93, 99, 104, 105, 107 Khordâḏbah, Ibn, ii. 195, 196-7 Kiær, A., ii. 63 Kingigtorsuak, Runic stone from, i. 297; ii. 84 King map (circa 1502), ii. 331, 354, 355, 358, 364, 373, 374 Kings Mirror, The, (Konungs-Skuggsjá), i. 3, 272-3, 277, 279-80, 300, 352; ii. 1, 2, 29, 87, 88, 95, 96, 98, 155, 157, 172, 193, 234, 242-8; authorship of, ii. 242 Kjær, A., i. 324 Kjalarnes, i. 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 329; ii. 23 Kjelmö, archæological find from, i. 212-9, 224 Kjölen range, i. 102, 224; ii. 222 Kleiven, Ivar, i. 340 “Knarren,” Royal trading ship to Greenland, ii. 38, 98-9, 106, 122 Knattleikr, Norse ball-game, ii. 38-9, 61, 93; similar to lacrosse, ii. 39 “Kobandoi” (Cobandi), i. 93-4, 118 Koch, J., i. 156 Kohl, J. G., ii. 148, 340, 353 Kohlmann, P. W., i. 194 Koht, H., i. 247; ii. 43 Kola peninsula, i. 173, 174, 217, 223; ii. 135, 142, 165, 176 Koren-Wiberg, Christian, ii. 80 Krabbo, Hermann, i. 202 Krag, H. P. S., i. 340 Kraken, sea monster, i. 375; ii. 234, 244 Kretschmer, K., i. 10, 12, 14, 74, 78; ii. 215, 222, 223, 226, 228, 229, 230, 282, 284, 294, 313, 353 Kristensen, W. Brede, i. 347 Kristni-saga, i. 313, 331, 367; ii. 59 Kröksfjarðarheiðr (Greenland), i. 267, 299, 300-1, 304, 306, 308, 309, 310; ii. 72, 83, 88 Kulhwch and Olwen, Tale of, i. 342; ii. 8 Kunstmann, F., ii. 229, 378 “Kunstmann, No. 2,” Italian mappamundi, ii. 374 Kvænland (Cvenland, Cwênland; Finland), i. 155, 170, 175, 178, 198; the name mistaken for “Land of Women,” i. 112, 186-7, 383; ii. 64, 214, 237 Kvæns (see Finns), Cwênas, i. 178, 191, 206, 207, 220, 223; ii. 137, 141, 167; their name confused with “cyon” (dog), i. 155, 188 Labrador, i. 322, 323, 334, 335; ii. 5, 23, 41, 68, 105, 106, 131, 133, 308, 314, 335, 338, 352, 358, 364, 370; == Greenland, ii. 129, 132, 133, 315, 331, 335; the name of, ii. 331-2, 357-8 Lacrosse, ii. 38-41; perhaps derived from Norsemen, ii. 40 Lactantius, i. 127 Læstrygons, i. 13, 78 Läffler, Prof. L. F., i. 132, 134, 136, 297; ii. 63 “Lageniensis,” i. 357, 379; ii. 228 Lagnus, bay, i. 101, 105 Lambert map, ii. 188, 259 Lampros, S. P., ii. 281 Landa-Rolf, i. 285-6 Landegode (Landit Góða), island off Bodō, Norway, i. 369-70, 372, 373, 374; ii. 60 Landnámabók, i. 166, 251, 255, 256, 258, 260, 261, 266, 273, 288, 291, 293, 313, 324, 330, 332, 353, 366, 367, 368, 369, 377; ii. 21, 42, 58, 60, 62, 166, 168, 169, 170, 172 Langebek, i. 179 Langobards, i. 138, 139, 155, 156, 159 Laon globe, ii. 290 Lappenberg, I. M., i. 193, 195, 303 Lapps, i. 61, 113, 150, 171, 173, 177, 190, 191, 203-8, 218, 220, 224-32, 372; ii. 76, 135, 164, 168, 175, 178; their magic, i. 191, 204, 219, 227, 229; ii. 32, 77, 136, 137; their archery, i. 227-30; their languages, i. 228-9 Lascaris, Cananos, travels in the North, ii. 281 Las Casas, ii. 214 Latitude, calculation of, i. 46-8, 64, 76, 78, 116-7; ii. 22, 260, 307; scale of, on Ptolemy’s and other maps, ii. 259, 260-1, 264, 274-5 Latris, island, i. 101, 105 Laurentius Kálfsson’s saga, ii. 8 Leardus, Johannes, mappamundi by, ii. 282 L’Ecuy globe (or Rouen globe), ii. 129, 131-2 Leem, K., ii. 178, 191 Leif Ericson, i. 270, 313, 314, 315-8, 321, 331, 332, 338, 339, 343, 346, 359, 380, 384; ii. 4, 21, 22, 25, 50, 51, 59, 65; called “the Lucky,” i. 270, 313, 317, 331; meaning of the name, i. 380-2; discovers Wineland the Good, i. 313, 317, 332; rescues the shipwrecked crew, i. 317; introduces Christianity, i. 317, 332, 380 Lelewel, J., ii. 131, 203, 278, 282, 284, 286 Leucippus, i. 12, 127 Liebrecht, F., ii. 228 Ligurians, i. 41, 42, 114 Lik-Lodin, i. 282-3 Lillienskiold, Hans Hansen, i. 177 Lind, E. H., i. 332 “Liver Sea” (Lebermeer), i. 69, 181, 363; ii. 20, 51, 231 Lok, Michael, Map of 1582, ii. 130, 321, 323 Lönborg, S. E., i. 102, 112, 131, 135, 156, 174, 180, 193, 197; ii. 150 Longest day, calculation of, ii. 52, 54 Lot, F., i. 357, 379 Loth, J., i. 342 Lucian, i. 352, 355, 356, 360, 361, 363, 366, 376; ii. 54, 150 Lugii (Vandal tribe), i. 247 “Lycko-Pār” (“Lykke-Per”), i. 381 “Lykk-Anders,” Tale of, i. 381 Lyschander (Grönlands Chronica), ii. 101, 102, 111 Lytton, Lord, i. 350 Machutus, St., Voyage of, i. 334, 354, 363 Macrobius, i. 123, 126, 184; ii. 182, 193, 247 Maelduin, Voyage of, i. 336-7, 338, 355, 356, 358, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 366; ii. 9, 18, 45, 150 Maelstrom, Legends of the, i. 157-9; ii. 138, 150-3, 241 Mæotides, i. 88 Mæotis Palus (Sea of Azov), i. 89; ii. 199, 211, 283, 284 Maggiolo, map by (1527), ii. 321, 335, 358, 359 “Mag Mell” (the happy plain), i. 355, 357, 365, 370 Magnaghi, A., ii. 227, 230 Magnus Barfot’s Saga, i. 197 Magnussen, Finn, ii. 102 Maǵûs, Arab name for Northern Vikings, ii. 55, 196, 200, 201, 209, 210 Maine, coast of, ii. 316, 317 Mair, G., i. 35, 36, 37, 43, 47, 59 Manannán mac Lir, i. 363, 370; ii. 45 Mandeville, Sir John, ii. 271, 292 Manna, i. 338 Mannhardt, W., i. 365 Manuel, King of Portugal, ii. 346, 347, 352, 353, 375, 376, 377, 378 Mapes, Walter, ii. 75-6 Maps (see also Compass-charts), earliest Greek, i. 11, 76, 77, 78; ii. 182; Ptolemy’s, i. 116-22; wheel-maps, i. 151; ii. 183-8, 193, 218, 222; T- and OT-maps, i. 151; ii. 183-4, 193; Arab maps, ii. 203; 15th century mappemundi, ii. 281-7 Marcianus of Heraclea, i. 123 Margaret, Queen of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, ii. 118, 132 Marinus of Tyre, i. 115, 116, 121, 122; ii. 194, 249 Markham, Sir C. R., i. 43, 58, 64; ii. 295, 336, 373 Markland, i. 299, 305, 307, 312, 313, 322, 323, 324, 329, 334, 335, 336, 338; ii. 1, 19, 22, 23, 36, 37, 42, 61, 92-93, 96, 229, 279; ship from M. reaches Iceland, ii. 22, 25, 36-8, 61, 229 Martellus, Henricus, ii. 276, 279 Martyr, Peter, ii. 303, 330, 336, 337, 338, 339, 342 Marx, F., i. 37 Massagetæ, i. 81, 148; ii. 188 Massalia, i. 31, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 67, 70 Mas’ûdî, ii. 198-9, 207 Matthew Paris, ii. 281 Matthias, Franz, i. 36, 43 Maurenbrecher, B., i. 349 Maurer, K., i. 265; ii. 9 Mauro, Fra, map by, ii. 177, 278, 285, 286 Medici Atlas (1351), i. 362; ii. 229, 234-6, 236, 240, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 272-6 Mehren, A. F., ii. 143, 145, 212 Meissner, R., i. 255 Mela, Pomponius, i. 15, 19, 28, 38, 44, 55, 63, 72, 75, 85-96, 97, 101, 103, 114, 118, 131, 144, 155; ii. 32, 192, 208 Melville Bay, i. 305, 310 Mercator, Gerard, ii. 261; his map of 1569, ii. 130 Meregarto, i. 69, 181-4, 193, 252; ii. 51 Mevenklint (Kolbeins-ey), i. 264, 286, 287; ii. 166, 169, 170, 172 Meyer, Kuno, i. 198, 354 Michelsen, A. L. J., i. 214 Midgards-worm, i. 364; ii. 234 Mid-glacier (Miðjǫkull), Greenland, i. 267, 288, 290, 293, 294, 295 Midnight sun (long summer day and winter night in the North), i. 14, 45, 53-4, 62, 79, 92, 98, 106, 131, 133-4, 140, 157, 165, 193, 194, 309-11; ii. 144, 190, 212, 281 Mikhow, Andrei, ii. 163, 173, 174 Mikkola, Prof., ii. 175 Miller, K., i. 77, 87, 90, 109, 115, 123, 150, 152, 180, 182; ii. 185, 186, 187, 192, 193, 223, 226, 282, 284 Modena compass-chart, ii. 230-1, 235, 266, 282 Moe, Prof. Moltke, i. 69, 247, 304, 332, 341, 342, 352, 358, 364, 366, 370, 372, 373, 374, 378, 379, 381; ii. 8, 11, 15, 16, 20, 33, 44, 45, 46, 51, 56, 75, 147, 213, 228, 242, 245 Mommsen, T., i. 57, 123, 129, 136, 137, 193; ii. 143 Monopoly of trade with Greenland, ii. 98, 118-9, 179-80; with Finmark, ii. 179 Montelius, O., i. 239, 241 “Moorbrücken,” i. 36 Mordvins, ii. 142, 143, 199 Morimarusa, i. 99, 100, 105; ii. 58 Moskenström (Lofoten), i. 158; ii. 152-3, 154, 241 “Mǫsurr” (masur), wood from Wineland, i. 317; ii. 5, 25 Much, R., i. 93, 94, 95, 99, 110, 112, 119, 120, 246, 247 Müllenhoff, K., i. 37, 38, 41, 42, 43, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 65, 83, 85, 92, 93, 102, 103, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 120, 128, 132, 134, 136, 137, 145, 206, 207, 234, 235, 246, 247 Müllenhoff and Scherer, i. 181 Müller, I., i. 83 Müller, S., i. 22 Munch, P.A., i. 50, 132, 134, 136, 146, 179, 180, 205, 246, 247, 258, 331; ii. 154 Muratori, ii. 162 Murman coast, i. 212; ii. 173, 176, 269 Mylius-Erichsen, i. 2, 3 Naddodd Viking, i. 255-7 Nansen, F., First Crossing of Greenland, i. 281, 293 Nansen, F., Eskimo Life, ii. 72, 73, 105 Narwhale, i. 300, 303 Natives of North America, brought to England in 1501 or 1502, ii. 333; probably Eskimo, ii. 334; brought to Lisbon by Corte-Real’s expedition, ii. 348, 349, 351-2, 366-7; perhaps Eskimo, ii. 367 Negri, Francesco, i. 226 Nepos, Cornelius, i. 87 Nestor’s Russian Chronicle, ii. 143 Newfoundland, i. 248, 322, 323, 324, 334, 335; ii. 23, 91, 308, 309, 312, 313, 314, 315, 317, 318, 321, 322, 329, 335, 337, 355, 362, 363, 364, 376; discovery of, by Corte-Real, ii. 330, 354, 355, 362; on 16th century maps, ii. 370-5; fisheries of, ii. 330-1, 378; called Terra de Corte-Real, ii. 354, 355, 376, 378 Newfoundland Banks, ii. 154, 309, 318, 363 New Land (Nyaland), i. 285-6 Nicholas V., Pope, Letter to, on Greenland, ii. 17, 86, 112, 116, 256, 270, 288, 366; Letter from, on Greenland (1448), ii. 113-5, 278 Nicholas of Lynn, ii. 86, 151, 153, 214, 249, 256, 261, 270, 289 Nicolayssen, O., i. 375 Nielsen, Prof. Konrad, i. 219, 223; ii. 175 Nielsen, Prof. Yngvar, i. 369; ii. 29, 39, 90, 92, 154 Niese, B., i. 14 Nikulás Bergsson, Abbot, of Thverâ, (Icelandic geographical work), i. 198, 313; ii. 1, 2, 237, 256 Nilsson, Sven, i. 35, 60, 205 “Nisse,” Scandinavian fairy, i. 373, 381; ii. 15 Njál’s Saga, i. 372 Noel, S. B. J., ii. 160, 173 “Nordbotn,” (Norderbondt, Nordhindh Bondh, Nordenbodhn), the Polar Sea, i. 303, 304; ii. 171, 256, 259, 267, 268, 269 Nordenskiöld, A. E., i. 226; ii. 32, 220, 223, 229, 230, 234, 249, 250, 266, 282, 285, 357 Norðrsetur (Greenland), i. 267, 296, 298-307, 308, 309, 300; ii. 83, 88 Norðrsetudrápa, i. 273, 298 Normans, i. 145, 146, 153, 188, 234; ii. 159-62, 200-2 North Cape, i. 171, 172, 174; ii. 124 North Pole, whirlpool at, i. 159; land at, ii. 239, 263, 272 North Sea, amber from, i. 14, 32, 34, 35 North-West Passage, i. 115; ii. 129, 130, 378 Norway, i. 58, 60-5, 147, 253, 292, 316, 324, 353; ii. 98-100, 169, 170, 204, 237; the name of, i. 107, 179; Jordanes on, i. 136-8; Solinus MSS. on, i. 161; Ottar on, i. 170-1, 175-80; Adam of Bremen on, i. 188, 190-2, 194, 200; anthropological characteristics in, i. 209-10; fairylands in, i. 369-70; whaling in, ii. 155-9; Edrisi on, ii. 205; Shîrazî on, ii. 211; in mediæval cartography, ii. 219, 221, 225, 227, 230, 235-6, 257, 258-61, 265-9, 286 Norwegian seafaring, i. 62, 221, 223, 224, 233-5, 246-52, 287; ii. 135, 140; decline of, ii. 179-81 Nova Scotia, i. 329, 335, 345; ii. 3, 5, 90, 91, 309, 314-6, 321; probably discovered by John Cabot, ii. 314-6 Novaya Zemlya, i. 212, 248; ii. 165, 166, 173, 238 Novilara, Carvings on grave-stone at, i. 238, 239 Novgorod, ii. 140, 142 Nydam, Boat from, i. 110, 238, 241, 244, 246 Oceanus, i. 8, 9, 10, 11, 16, 79, 192, 198, 199, 200, 201; ii. 1, 154, 182, 198, 200, 204, 239, 248 Ochon, King of the Eruli, i. 141, 148 Odysseus, i. 13, 78; ii. 53, 54 “Œcumene” (the habitable world), i. 8, 10, 12, 45, 55, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82, 115, 121, 198; ii. 182, 217 Œneæ, or Œonæ (egg-eaters), i. 91, 92, 95, 131, 155 Œstrymnides, i. 28, 37-41; == Cassiterides, i. 39 Ogygia, i. 182, 347, 355, 363; ii. 43 Olaf the Saint, i. 331; ii. 49, 50, 171 Olaf Tryggvason, i. 270, 316, 321, 339; ii. 50 Olaus Magnus, i. 205, 211, 228; ii. 17, 89, 111, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 131, 139, 141, 152, 163, 173, 178 Oliveriana map (circa 1503), ii. 358, 369, 370, 374-5 Olrik, Axel, ii. 252, 253 Olsen, Gunnar, i. 377 Olsen, Prof. Magnus, i. 228, 219, 246, 297 Omar al ’Udhri, i. 284; ii. 156 Ongania (reproductions of maps), ii. 221, 234, 278, 282, 287 Oppert, J., i. 35 Orcades, i. 57, 90, 106, 107, 117, 123, 130, 160, 161, 192, 199, 200; ii. 186, 192, 200 Ordericus Vitalis, i. 382; ii. 31 “Orkan” (or “Orkas”), i. 50-3, 58, 90 Orkneys, i. 52-3, 90, 107, 113, 117, 192, 195, 258; ii. 55, 148; in mediæval cartography, ii. 219, 228 Orosius, Paulus, i. 38, 44, 123, 151, 169, 184; ii. 183, 192, 193 Oseberg ship, i. 246, 247 Ostiæi, i. 69, 72 Ostiimans (Ostimnians), i. 38, 69, 72 Ost-sæ̂, i. 169 Ostyaks, i. 207; ii. 147 Ottar (Ohthere), i. 170-80, 204, 211, 213, 214, 218, 220, 225, 230, 231, 247; ii. 135-6, 142, 156, 159, 164, 173, 243 Panoti (long-eared), i. 92 Paris, Gaston, i. 359 Parmenides of Elea, i. 12, 123; ii. 182 Pasqualigo, Lorenzo, ii. 301, 302, 303, 312, 314, 316, 317 Pasqualigo, Pietro, Venetian Minister at Lisbon, ii. 347-9, 355, 360, 361, 362, 363, 365, 367, 372 Paulus Warnefridi, i. 136, 139, 155-60, 184, 187, 196, 203, 284; ii. 147, 148, 150, 153 Pechora, river, ii. 144, 146, 147, 173 Pedo, Albinovanus, i. 82-4; ii. 148 “Perdita” (the Lost Isle), i. 376; ii. 213 Permians, i. 174 Peschel, Johannes, i. 352; ii. 147 Peucini, i. 111, 112, 113, 114 Peyrere (Relation du Groënland), ii. 120 Phæacians, i. 347, 371, 378; ii. 53, 54 Philemon, i. 99, 100 Phoca fœtida, i. 177 Phoca grœnlandica (saddleback seal), i. 217, 276 Phoca vitulina, i. 217 Phœnicians, i. 24, 25, 27, 30, 33, 34-6, 40, 41, 99, 233, 249, 346, 349, 362, 376 Pilestrina, map of 1511, attributed to, ii. 374, 376, 377 Pindar, i. 18, 348 Pining, Didrik, ii. 123-9, 133, 345 Pistorius, ii. 173 Pizigano map (1367), ii. 229, 230, 236 Plato, ii. 46, 293 Pliny, i. 15, 19, 20, 26, 28, 30, 33, 37, 38, 44, 52, 53, 55, 57, 58, 65, 70, 71, 72, 75, 84, 85, 87, 93, 96-107, 118, 121, 123, 126, 134, 155, 162, 185, 334, 348, 349, 362, 376; ii. 48, 55, 59, 214 Plutarch, i. 156, 182, 187, 349, 363, 376; ii. 43 Polar Sea, i. 169, 172, 195-6, 213, 283, 303; ii. 145, 164, 165, 166, 171, 173, 174, 176, 177, 238 Polo, Marco, ii. 288, 289 Polus (equinoctial dial), i. 46, 48 Polybius, i. 43, 44, 45, 52, 56, 66, 67, 73, 74, 78, 80; ii. 160 Pontoppidan, Erich, i. 375 Porthan, H. G., i. 179 Portolani, ii. 216 Portuguese adventurers, Arab tale of, ii. 51-5 Portuguese chart of about 1520, at Munich, ii. 353, 354, 355, 356 Portuguese, maritime enterprise of, ii. 292-3, 345, 377 Posidonius, i. 14, 23, 27, 52, 79, 115; ii. 292, 297 Pothorst, associate of Pining, ii. 123-9, 133, 345 Priscianus Cæsariensis, i. 123 Procopius, i. 60, 94, 132, 134, 138, 139-50, 154, 194, 203, 372 Promised Land (see Tír Tairngiri and Terra Repromissionis) Provisioning of Viking ships, i. 268-9 Psalter map, ii. 187, 188 Ptolemy, i. 26, 38, 44, 72, 75, 76, 79, 93, 99, 102, 111, 112, 115-22, 128, 130, 131, 132, 142, 143, 144, 246, 349; ii. 182, 194, 195, 197, 206, 208, 210, 211, 212, 220, 236, 249, 250, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 275, 277, 278, 279, 280, 292 Puebla, Ruy Gonzales de, Spanish Ambassador to Henry VII., ii. 300, 324, 325 Pullè and Longhena, ii. 230 Purchas his Pilgrimes, ii. 126 Pygmies, ii. 17, 75, 76, 85, 86, 111, 117, 206, 255, 263, 269, 270 Pythagoras, i. 11, 12 Pytheas, i. 2, 29, 38, 41, 43-73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 90, 92, 97, 100, 106, 116, 165, 172, 193, 234, 246; date of his voyage, i. 44; his astronomical measurements, i. 45; his ship, i. 48; in Britain, i. 50; in Thule, i. 53; on the sea beyond Thule, i. 65; voyage along the coast of Germania, i. 69 Qazwînî, i. 187, 284; ii. 57, 144, 156, 202, 209-11, 234 Qodâma, ii. 198 Querini’s travels in Norway (1432), ii. 177, 286 Qvigstad, J. K., i. 173, 220, 221, 226, 228, 229, 372; ii. 210 Rafn, C., i. 304, 340; ii. 31, 33, 193 Ragnaricii (see Ranrike), i. 136 Râkâ, island in Arab myth, ii. 207-8 Ramusio, G. B., ii. 298, 303, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 354, 364 Ranii, i. 136, 137 Ranisch, W., i. 18 Ranrike, i. 136 Rask, R., i. 179 Raumarici (see Romerike), i. 136 Ravenna geographer, The, i. 144, 152-4, 203 Ravenstein, E. G., ii. 287, 289 Ravn Hlymreks-farer, i. 354, 366 Reeves, A. M., i. 267, 322; ii. 30 Reinach, S., i. 26, 27 Reindeer, i. 175, 176, 191, 204, 212, 217, 226, 227, 230, 276, 277 Reindeer-Lapps, i. 61, 190, 204, 205, 207, 218, 220-32; ii. 269 Reinel, Pedro, map by, ii. 321, 322, 358, 364, 370, 371, 374, 376, 377 Rheims mappamundi in MS. of Mela, ii. 282-3 Rhipæan, or Riphæan, Mountains, i. 13, 16, 79, 81, 88, 89, 98, 101, 128, 189, 190, 191, 194, 200; ii. 223 Riant, Paul, ii. 55 Ribero, Diego, map of 1529, ii. 315, 335, 356, 357, 359 Rietz, i. 373 Rimbertus, i. 167 Rink, H., ii. 8, 69, 70, 71, 106 Rock-carvings, Scandinavian, i. 236-41, 245 Rodulf, Norwegian king, i. 129, 132, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 143, 147 Roger II., Norman king of Sicily, ii. 202, 203 Rohde, E., ii. 57, 58, 234 Rök-stone, The, i. 138, 148 Rolf of Raudesand, i. 264, 315 Romerike, i. 136 Romsdal, i. 136, 137, 147 Rördan, Holger (Monumenta Historiæ Danicæ), ii. 129 Ross, H., i. 341, 352; ii. 13, 171 Rudimentum Novitiorum, Map in, ii. 32; geography in, ii. 189 Rûm (Eastern and Central Europe), ii. 197, 209, 211 Rûs (Scandinavians in Russia), ii. 196, 197, 198, 199 Rusbeas, or Rubeas, promontory, i. 99-100, 102 Russia (see also Bjarmeland), i. 185, 187, 188, 191, 214, 383; ii. 141, 143, 164, 174, 195, 196, 197, 206 Ruste, Ibn, ii. 146, 198 Ruysch’s map (1508), i. 262; ii, 289 Rydberg, Viktor, i. 156, 158 Ryger (Ruger, Rugii), i. 136, 138, 147, 179, 209, 246 Rygh, K., i. 173, 304, 323, 324, 369 Rygh, O., i. 304, 324, 374; ii. 211 Rymbegla, i. 188, 249, 287, 322, 335; ii. 11, 167, 170, 239, 240, 256, 260, 263, 264, 271, 272 Sabalingii, i. 72, 118 Sævo, Mons, (or Suevus), i. 85, 101, 102 Sa’id, Ibn, ii. 177, 208-9 Sailing-directions, Icelandic, i. 262, 285, 288, 290; ii. 166, 168-71, 261 St. John, Island of, on sixteenth-century maps, ii. 320-1, 377 St. John, Valley of, New Brunswick, i. 335; ii. 3, 5 St. Lawrence, Gulf of, ii. 68 Sallust, i. 349; ii. 183, 186; “Sallust map” at Geneva, ii. 282, 283 Samoyeds, i. 212, 223; ii. 143, 146, 175 Samson Fagre’s Saga, ii. 172 Sanali (long-eared), i. 91, 92 San-Marte, i. 365 Santa Cruz, Alonso de, ii. 332 Sanudo, Marino, ii. 222-5, 227, 262, 272, 282 Sargasso Sea, i. 40 Sarmatia, Sarmatians (Slavs), i. 87, 91, 95, 97, 101, 109, 113, 120, 170 Sars, J. E., i. 234, 258 Säve, P. A., i. 374 Savolotchie (the country on the Dvina), ii. 141-2 Saxo Grammaticus, i. 193, 206, 355, 364; ii. 101, 147, 165-6, 221, 222-3, 224, 227, 238, 242, 258, 259, 263 Saxons, i. 145, 153, 154, 180, 235, 242, 245 “Scadinavia,” or “Scatinavia,” i. 93, 101, 102-4, 105, 155, 156 “Scandia” (“Scandza”), i. 102-4, 106, 107, 119, 120, 130-1, 136, 142-4, 153, 155; ii. 254, 257 Scandinavia, regarded as a peninsula, i. 185; ii. 222; as an island, ii. 186, 188, 225; representation of, in mediæval cartography, ii. 221-5, 227, 234-6, 250, 258-69, 285, 286; geography of, in Northern writers, ii. 237-9 Schafarik, i. 185 Schanz, M., i. 83 Schiern, F., i. 191 Schirmer, G., ii. 44 Schlaraffenland, i. 352 Schliemann, H., i. 24 Schönnerböl, ii. 152, 153 Schoolcraft, H. R., ii. 7 Schrader, O., i. 24, 34, 36 Schröder, C., i. 360; ii. 9, 19, 43, 44, 50 Schübeler, Prof., ii. 5 Schuchhardt, C., i. 14 Schultz-Lorentzen, ii. 73 Sciringesheal (Skiringssal), i. 179, 247 Scirri (Skirer), i. 101, 179, 247 Scisco, Dr. L. D., ii. 43 Scolvus, Johannes, ii. 129-33 Scotland, i. 161; ii. 204; Pytheas in, i. 53-6; in mediæval cartography, ii. 221, 257 Scottish runners, Karlsevne’s, i. 321, 324-5, 337, 339-43; ii. 65 Scythia, Scythians, i. 13, 16, 19, 20, 23, 69, 70, 71, 81, 85, 87, 88, 89, 95, 97, 98, 99, 101, 114, 153, 154, 185, 187 Sealand, i. 93, 94, 103, 105, 138; in mediæval cartography, ii. 219, 254, 255, 257, 265 Seals, Sealing, i. 177, 216-9, 224, 276-8, 286-7, 299, 300; ii. 72, 91, 97, 155, 156, 165, 173, 243 “Sea-lung,” i. 66-7 Sébillot, P., i. 377 Seippel, Prof. Alexander, ii. 143, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 202, 203, 204, 205, 208, 210, 211 Seleucus, i. 77 Semnones, i. 85 Sena, island off Brittany, i. 29, 356; ii. 32, 47 Seneca, i. 82, 84 Seres, Serica (China), ii. 262, 271 “Sermende” (== Sarmatians ?), i. 170 Sertorius, i. 349-50 Setälä, Prof. E., i. 219; ii. 175 Seven Cities, Isle of the, ii. 293, 295, 304, 325 Seven Sleepers, Legend of the, i. 20, 156, 284 Severianus, i. 127 Shetland Isles, i. 52-3, 57, 58, 67, 90, 106, 107, 117, 161, 163, 179, 192, 234, 257, 292, 374; ii. 207; in mediæval cartography, ii. 219, 228, 266 Ship-burials, i. 239, 241 Ships, Egyptian, i. 7, 23, 235, 237, 242, 243; Greek, i. 48-9, 235, 237, 242, 243, 245; Phœnician, i. 35, 237, 243, 245; early Scandinavian, i. 110, 236-44; Viking, i. 236, 238, 241, 242, 243, 246-7; in Greenland, i. 305 Shîrazî, ii. 211-2 “Síd” (Irish fairies), i. 356, 371; ii. 16, 20, 45-6, 60 Sigurd Stefansson’s map of the North, ii. 7 Simonssön, Jón, i. 227 Sinclair, Legends of, in Norway, i. 339-41 Sindbad, i. 159; ii. 57, 234 Siret, L., i. 22, 24, 29 Sitones, i. 111-2 Skaði, Norse goddess, i. 103, 207 Skáld-Helga Rimur, i. 298-9, 300 Skåne, i. 72, 103, 104, 180; in mediæval cartography, ii. 221, 222, 235, 257, 258, 267, 285 Skaw, The, i. 85, 100, 105, 186; ii. 204 Ski-running, i. 149, 157, 158, 203, 223; ii. 139 Skolte-Lapps, i. 214, 220, 231 Skrælings, in Greenland, i. 260, 298, 308, 312, 327; ii. 17, 77-90, 101, 108, 111, 117; in Wineland, i. 260, 312, 313, 327-30, 368; ii. 6-11, 26, 60, 90-3, 206, 208; in Markland, i. 329; ii. 15, 19, 20, 92-3; in Helluland, ii. 35; originally mythical beings, ii. 11-20, 26, 60, 75-6; meaning of the word, ii. 13; called Pygmæi, ii. 12, 17, 75, 270 Skridfinns (Screrefennæ, Scrithifini, Rerefeni, Scritobini, Scride-Finnas, Scritefini), i. 131-2, 140, 143, 144, 149-50, 153-4, 156-7, 170, 189, 191, 194, 198, 203-8, 210, 221, 222, 223, 382; ii. 139, 192 Skull-measurements, of Scandinavians, i. 209, 211; of Lapps, i. 219-20; of Eskimo, ii. 67 Slavs (see also Sarmatians), i. 167, 188, 208, 209, 210; ii. 142, 143, 197, 198 Sleswick, i. 70, 72, 101, 119, 179, 180; ii. 202, 204 Sluggish sea, outside the Pillars of Hercules, and in the North, i. 38, 40-1, 68, 83, 100, 108, 112-3, 130, 165 Smith Sound, i. 304, 306; ii. 71, 72, 73, 74 “Smörland” as a name for fairyland, i. 374 Snæbjörn, Galti, i. 264, 280 Snæfell (Greenland), i. 267, 308, 310 Snæfellsnes (Iceland), i. 257, 262, 267, 288, 290, 293, 294, 295 Snedgus and Mac Riagail, Voyage of, ii. 53-4 Snorre Sturlason, i. 270, 273; ii. 18, 64, 137, 239 Snorre Thorbrandsson, Wineland voyager, i. 313, 319, 320, 326, 327, 333 Söderberg, Prof. Sven, on Wineland, ii. 63-5 Solberg, Dr. O., i. 213, 214, 217, 219, 230, 306; ii. 72, 73, 103 Soleri map (1385), ii. 229 Solinus, C. Julius, i. 52, 55, 57, 64, 66, 99, 123, 126, 151, 160, 184, 189, 193, 348 Soncino, Raimondo di, Milanese Minister in London, ii. 296-7, 298, 301, 302, 303-5, 306, 307, 308, 309, 312, 314, 316, 323 Sörensen, S. A., i. 179 Spain, tin in, i. 23, 31; suggested origin of the name of, i. 380; Viking raids in, ii. 199, 200 Spherical form of the earth, Doctrine of, i. 11, 97, 126, 127, 151, 194, 199; ii. 185, 247 Spies, in land of Canaan, i. 339 Spitzbergen, i. 248; ii. 165, 168, 170, 172, 173, 179, 238 Steensby, H. P., ii. 69, 70 Steenstrup, Japetus, i. 172 Steenstrup, Johannes, ii. 161, 162 Stenkyrka (Gotland), Stone from, i. 239, 243 Stjórn (Norwegian version of Old Testament), i. 338; ii. 4 Stokes, Whitley, i. 357 Storm, Gustav, i. 132, 174, 196, 218, 228, 254, 255, 260, 284, 285, 292, 301, 305, 313, 314, 317, 321, 322, 324, 329, 333, 369; ii. 1, 2, 3, 7, 11, 14, 17, 19, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 30, 35, 36, 43, 47, 48, 75, 79, 82, 86, 90, 93, 99, 100, 101, 107, 111, 112, 114, 117, 118, 121, 122, 124, 129, 131, 136, 137, 141, 147, 150, 153, 158, 167, 168, 229, 235, 237, 240, 242, 249, 250, 256, 257, 258, 262, 267, 268, 270, 272, 279, 289, 294 Stow, John, Chronicle, ii. 333 Strabo, i. 14, 15, 20, 23, 24, 27, 28, 38, 42, 43, 44, 45, 50, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 80-2, 87, 111, 112, 161, 187, 349; ii. 47, 75, 160, 201 Straumsfjord (Wineland), i. 325, 326, 329, 330, 337, 343, 345 Ström, Han (Description of Söndmör), i. 370, 375 Strong Men, Island of, ii. 43, 46, 50, 61 Sturlubók, i. 255, 256, 257, 261, 262, 293, 331, 354, 367, 368; ii. 169, 261 Styx, i. 359, 372 “Suehans” (see Svear), i. 135, 137 Sueones (see Svear), i. 188-9 “Suetidi,” i. 136, 137 Suevi (Suebi), i. 87, 108-9 Suhm (Historie af Danmark), ii. 154 Suiones (see Svear), i. 110-2, 236, 238, 244, 245 Sun-dial, i. 46-7 Sun’s altitude, measurement of, i. 249, 250, 309-11; ii. 307 Svalbard (Spitzbergen ?), ii. 165, 166-73, 238 Svear (Swedes, Suiones, Suehans, Sveones, Sueones), i. 110-2, 135, 137, 167, 170, 188-9; ii. 190 Svein Estridsson, King of Denmark, i. 184, 188, 189, 195, 201, 383; ii. 148 Sverdrup, Otto, i. 306; ii. 70, 71 Sviatoi Nos, promontory, i. 171, 174; ii. 136, 138, 140, 155 Svinöi, name of island off Sunnmör, i. 369-70, 378; island off Nordland, i. 378; island in the Faroes, i. 375, 378; probable origin of the name, i. 378 Sweden, i. 71, 101, 112, 134-5, 178, 187, 188-9, 210, 381, 383; ii. 190, 205, 237; in mediæval cartography, ii. 219, 221, 222, 223 Swedes (see Svear and Göter) Swedish legends and fairy-tales, ii. 55-6 Sydow, C. W. von, i. 342, 364 Tacitus, i. 69, 71, 83, 95, 104, 107-14, 131, 144, 149, 150, 203, 236, 238, 244, 245; ii. 47 Tanais (the Don), i. 66, 70, 78, 88, 151; ii. 186 Tarducci, F., ii. 295, 304, 319 Tarsis (Tarshish, Tartessos), i. 24, 28, 31, 38 Tartarus, i. 11, 68, 158; ii. 150, 240 Tartûshi, at-, i. 187; ii. 202 Tastris, promontory, i. 101, 105 Terfinnas, i. 171, 173-5, 204, 213, 218; ii. 146 “Terra del Rey de portuguall” on Cantino map, ii. 352, 363, 372; == Newfoundland, ii. 363, 370 “Terra Repromissionis Sanctorum,” i. 357, 358, 359, 363, 364; ii. 19, 228 Teutones, i. 70, 72, 91, 93, 94 Thalbitzer, W., ii. 19, 67, 70, 73, 88, 90, 93 Thales of Miletus, i. 12, 33, 34, 47 Theodoric, King of the Goths, i. 128, 129, 136, 137, 138, 147 Theopompus, i. 12, 16, 17, 355 Thietmar of Merseburg, i. 229 Thomsen, V., ii. 175, 198, 199 Thor, i. 325, 333, 341, 343, 364; “Thor-” names, i. 332-3; ii. 51 Thorbjörn Vivilsson, i. 318, 319, 320, 332 Thorbrand Snorrason, killed in Wineland, i. 313, 328, 333; ii. 10 Thore Hund’s expedition to Bjarmeland, ii. 137-8 Thorfinn, Earl of Orkney, i. 354; ii. 50 Thorgils Orrabeinsfostre, sails to Greenland, i. 280-2; ii. 81, 89 Thorgunna, Leif’s mistress, i. 316, 333 Thorhall Gamlason, Wineland voyager, i. 313, 319, 320, 333, 367 Thorhall the Hunter, i. 296, 320, 321, 325-6, 329, 333, 338, 343-4; ii. 24 Thorkel Gellisson, i. 253, 258, 260, 313, 354, 366, 367, 368; ii. 42 Thormod Kolbrunarskald, i. 276; ii. 18 Thorne, Robert, ii. 324, 341; map by, 334, 335 Thoroddssen, Th., i. 262; ii. 225 Thorolf Kveldulfsson, i. 175, 231 Thorolf Smör, i. 257, 374 Thorsdrápa, i. 219 Thorstein Ericson, i. 249, 317-9, 320, 321, 331, 333; attempts to find Wineland, i. 318 Thorvald Ericson, i. 318, 320, 329, 332; ii. 4, 13, 17-8 Thorvard, Wineland voyager, i. 320, 332 Three Brethren, Strait of the, ii. 130, 133 Thue, H. J., i. 60 Thule (Tyle, Thyle, Ultima Tile, &c.), i. 123, 134, 147; ii. 75, 149, 188, 192, 197, 198, 200; visited by Pytheas, i. 53-64; derivation of, i. 58-9; == Norway, i. 60; Mela on, i. 92; Pliny on, i. 106; Tacitus, i. 108; Ptolemy, i. 117, 120, 121; Jordanes, i. 130; Procopius, i. 140-4; Solinus MSS., i. 160-1; Adam of Bremen, i. 193-4; Dicuil on (== Iceland), i. 164-7; Tjodrik Monk (== Iceland), i. 254; Historia Norwegiæ (== Iceland), i. 255; in mediæval cartography, ii. 219, 228, 257, 266, 268, 269 Thyssagetæ, i. 88 Tides, on W. coast of France, i. 40; observed by Pytheas, i. 50; on coast of N. America, ii. 316 Timæus, i. 44, 51, 70, 71 Tin in ancient times, i. 23-31; derivation of Greek, Celtic and Latin words for, i. 25-7; tin-trade in southern Britain, i. 68 “Tír fo-Thuin” (Land under Wave), i. 358, 370, 373 “Tír Mor” (The Great Land), i. 357, 367; ii. 48 “Tír na Fer Finn” (the White Men’s Land), ii. 44 “Tír na m-Ban” (Land of Women), i. 354, 355 “Tír na m-Beo” (Land of the Living), i. 357, 371 “Tír na n-Ingen” (Land of Virgins), i. 355, 356, 363; ii. 45 “Tír na n-Og” (Land of Youth), i. 357 “Tír Tairngiri” (Promised Land), i. 357; ii. 228 Tjodhild, wife of Eric the Red, i. 267, 270, 318, 331 Tjodrik Monk, i. 166, 254, 255, 256, 257 Toby, Maurice, Bristol chronicle, ii. 302, 305-6 Torfæus, Tormodus, ii. 7, 32, 34, 154, 241 Torlacius (Gudbrand Torlaksson), ii. 241 Torp, Prof. Alf, i. 25, 26, 27, 58, 59, 94, 107, 148, 181, 183, 210, 304, 361, 371; ii. 13, 14, 228 Toscanelli, ii. 287, 292, 296, 372 Trade-routes to the North in ancient times, i. 14, 21-2, 28, 31, 36, 75, 96 “Trág Mór” (the Great Strand), i. 339, 357, 371; ii. 48 Triads, in legend, i. 337-8; ii. 6 Triquetrum (regula Ptolemaica), i. 47 Trolls, attributes of, i. 327, 344; ii. 10, 14-6, 19, 76 Trondhjem, i. 192; ii. 85, 117, 177, 205, 227, 235, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270 Troy, Bronze in, i. 24, 25 Turcæ, i. 88 Tylor, E. B., i. 380 Tyrker (in Wineland story), i. 341, 343-4, 360; ii. 4 Ua Corra, Navigation of the Sons of, i. 338-9, 355, 361; ii. 20 Unger, C. R., i. 331, 338, 360 Unipeds (Einfötingar, Ymantopodes), i. 189, 329; ii. 11, 13, 17, 263 Urus (aurochs), i. 191 “Uttara Kuru,” i. 19, 351 Vandals, i. 247 Vangensten, O., i. 226; ii. 85, 111, 233, 268, 286 Van Linschoten, i. 376 Varanger Fjord, i. 213, 214, 217, 219, 220; ii. 178, 210-11 Varangians’ Sea (see Warank), ii. 210, 211, 212, 213 Vardöhus fortress, ii. 126, 127, 141 Varzuga, river, i. 174; ii. 135 Vaux, C. de, ii. 213 Velleius, i. 85 Venedi (Wends), i. 101, 113 Vener, Lake, i. 131; ii. 266 Veneti, i. 39, 40, 242 Venusberg myth, i. 355, 371 Verrazano’s map of 1529, ii. 335 Vesconte, Perrinus, map of 1327, ii. 229; atlas of 1321, ii. 230 Vesconte, Pietro, ii. 222-5, 230, 255, 257, 258, 259, 276, 282, 283, 284, 285 Vigfússon, Gudbrand, i. 258, 314 Viking expeditions, the earliest, i. 234-5; in Spain, ii. 200 Vikings, origin of the name, i. 244, 245 Viladeste, Mecia de, compass-chart of 1413, ii. 234 “Villuland” (Norse land of glamour), i. 377; ii. 206 Vincent of Beauvais, ii. 158 Vine, Wild, (Vitus vulpina), in N. America, i. 317; ii. 3-4 “Vinili,” i. 136 “Vinoviloth,” i. 136, 203 Virgil, i. 130, 157, 159, 363 Vistula, i. 71, 75, 95, 96, 101, 104, 119, 120, 121, 130, 131, 181 Vogel, i. 235 Volga, ii. 142, 143, 144, 146, 197 Voyage of 1267, to the north of Baffin’s Bay, i. 250, 307-11; ii. 82, 83, 88 Wackernagel, W., ii. 32, 189 Walkendorf, Archbishop Eric, ii. 86, 112, 117, 163, 174 Walrus, ii. 112, 155, 163, 165, 243; hunting, i. 172, 176-8, 212, 216, 221, 276-8, 287, 300; ii. 72, 163-4, 173-8; tusks, i. 172, 176, 192, 212, 217, 277, 300, 303; ii. 163, 174; hide for ropes, i. 172, 176, 212, 277, 303; ii. 164, 178 Walsperger, Andreas, mappamundi by, ii. 283, 284, 286 Warank, Varyag, Varangi (Arab, Russian and Greek name for Scandinavians), ii. 196, 199, 200, 210-1 Wattenzone, Die, i. 68 Welcher, F. G., i. 371 Wends, i. 101, 113, 169, 180 Western Settlement of Greenland, i. 266, 271, 272, 300, 301, 302, 307, 311, 321, 322, 334; ii. 71, 90; decline of, ii. 95-100, 102, 106, 107-111; visit of Ivar Bárdsson to, ii. 108 West-sæ̂, i. 169, 170 Whales, Whaling, i. 251; ii. 145, 173; in Bay of Biscay, i. 39; ii. 159, 161; in Normandy, ii. 159, 161; Norwegian, i. 172; ii. 155-9, 178, 243; in Greenland, i. 276, 277; ii. 72; in Ireland, ii. 156; in the Mediterranean, ii. 162; in legend, i. 325-6, 344, 363, 364; ii. 213, 234 Whirlpools (see Maelstrom) White Men’s Land, The (see Hvítra-manna-land, and Tír na Fer Finn) White Sea, i. 169, 171, 172, 174, 175, 218-9, 222; ii. 135-42, 164, 173, 179, 237 Wichmann, Prof., i. 219 Wîdsîð, i. 234 Wieland, C. M., i. 352, 362; ii. 54, 150 Wieser, von, ii. 249 Wiklund, K. B., i. 112; ii. 175 “Wildlappenland,” i. 226; ii. 256, 263, 268; “Wildlappmanni,” ii. 269, 270 Wilhelmi, ii. 366 Wille, Prof. N., ii. 3 William of Malmesbury, i. 378 Wilse, J. N., i. 352 Wineland (Vínland, Vinland, Vindland, Winland, Wyntlandia, etc.), i. 184, 195, 196-8, 201, 249, 260, 273, 312-84; ii. 1-65, 90-3, 110, 154, 188, 190-1, 228, 239, 240, 293, 294, 304; called “the Good,” i. 313, 353, 369, 373; ii. 60; vines and wheat in, i. 195, 197-8, 317, 325, 326-7, 345-53, 382-3; ii. 3-6, 59; == the Fortunate Isles, i. 345-53, 382-4; ii. 1-2, 61; authorities for the Wineland voyages, i. 312-3; discovered by Leif Ericson, i. 317; Karlsevne’s voyage, i. 320-30; Irish origin of ideas of, i. 167, 258, 353-69; ii. 60; the name of, i. 353, 367; ii. 61; summary of conclusions on, ii. 58-62 Winge, Herluf, i. 275 Winship, G. P., ii. 295, 305, 319, 320, 324, 326, 333, 336, 340, 341, 342 “Wîsu” (or “Isû”), Arabic name for a people in North Russia, ii. 143-6, 200, 270 Wizzi, i. 188, 383; ii. 64, 143 Wolf, Jens Lauritzön, i. 364 Wolfenbüttel, Portuguese 16th century map at, ii. 331, 332, 335, 356 Women, Land of (Terra Feminarum), on the Baltic, i. 186-7, 383; ii. 214 Women’s boats (umiaks), Eskimo, ii. 19, 70, 72, 74, 85, 92, 269, 270 Wonders, Book of (Arabic), ii. 207, 213-4 Worcester, Willemus de, ii. 294 Wulfstan, i. 104, 180 Wuttke, H., i. 154 Wytfliet, Cornelius, ii. 131 Xamati, i. 88 Xenophon of Lampsacus, i. 71, 99, 100 Yâǵûǵ and Mâǵûǵ, ii. 144, 212, 213 Ynglinga Saga, i. 135 York, Cape, i. 306; ii. 71 Yugrians, ii. 173, 174, 200 Zarncke, ii. 242 Zeno map, ii. 131, 132 Zeuss, K., i. 112, 120, 145, 234, 235 Ziegler, Jacob, i. 294; ii. 17, 86, 106, 111, 127, 128 Zimmer, H., i. 234, 281, 334, 336, 339, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 360, 361, 363, 364, 371; ii. 9, 10, 20, 44, 45, 53, 54, 150, 151 Zizania aquatica (wild rice), in N. America, ii. 5 Zones, Doctrine of, i. 12, 76, 86, 123; ii. 182, 193, 247