TABLE OF CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION. Object of a Theory of the Earth. Division of minerals into Stratified and Unstratified.

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SECTION I.

PHENOMENA PECULIAR TO STRATIFIED BODIES.

1. Materials of the Strata.

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Present strata composed of the remains of more ancient rocks, § 1. Proofs from calcareous strata, § 2.—from siliceous, § 3.—from argillaceous, § 4.—from bituminous, § 5, 6. Absence of organized remains from the strata called primitive, not universally true, § 8, 9.—Term Primary substituted for Primitive. Composition from the materials of more ancient rocks, § 10.

2. Consolidation of the Strata.

p. 15

Consolidation, what, § 11. Objections to aqueous consolidation, § 12, 13, 14. Compression affects the action of fire on bodies, § 15, 16, 17.—Igneous consolidation of minerals prove from fossil wood, § 19.—From the flints in chalk, § 20.—from sandstone, § 21.—from the calcareous strata, § 23, 24, 25.—from the argillaceous, § 26, 27.—from the bituminous, § 28, 29.—from the saline, § 32. Salt mines in Cheshire. Trona of Africa, § 54, 35.

3. Position of the Strata.

p. 40

Strata formed at the bottom of the sea, § 36. Apparent elevation not produced by the retreat of the sea, § 37.—Strata, horizontal, when formed, § 38, 39. Disturbance of the strata proved from their inclined position § 40, 41, 42.—from shifts, &c. § 42. Shifts of different dates, ib. Disturbance of the primitive strata visible at their junction with the secondary, § 43, 44. This disturbance produced by a force directed upward, § 45, 46. This force the effect of subterraneous heat, § 47, 48.

SECTION II.

PHENOMENA PECULIAR TO UNSTRATIFIED BODIES.

1. Metallic Veins.

p. 57

Veins defined. They contain substances that were once in fusion, § 49, 50. Metallic veins, native metals, &c. § 51. Native copper, § 52. Manganese, § 53. Fragments of rocks included in veins, § 55. Shifting and heaving of veins, § 56, 57. Veins of different dates, § 58. Stratification not found in veins. Coating of the sides, what, § 59. Metallic veins most common in primitive strata; but not confined to them, § 60.

2. Whinstone.

p. 66

Enumeration of stones of this genus, § 61. Whin, whether in veins or in masses, resembles lava, § 62. Is a subterraneous lava, § 63. Columnar structure an argument for fusion, § 64. Not produced by drying, § 65. Whinstone penetrated by pyrites, § 66. Induration of the strata in contact with whin, § 67 Coal charred by whinstone veins, § 68. Disturbance of the strata by whinstone veins, § 69. Phenomena of whin interposed between strata, § 70, 71. Transition from whin to strata not gradual. § 72. Agates and chalcedonies in whinstone, § 74. This stone melted and reproduced from fusion by Sir James Hall, § 75. Mineral alkali found in it by Dr Kennedy, ib. Whinstones of different formation, § 76. Porphyry a species or variety of whinstone, §77.

3. Granite.

p. 82

Granite defined. Exists in masses and veins, § 77. The basis of other rocks, § 78. Its original fluidity inferred from the crystallization of its parts, § 79. Its fusion, from the structure of the Portsoy granite, § 80, 81.—from granite veins, § 82. General conclusion as to the igneous origin of minerals, § 83, 84, 85. Actual existence of subterraneous heat known from hot springs, volcanoes, earthquakes, § 86. Volcanic fire seated deep under the surface, § 87. Subterraneous heat not accompanied by burning, § 88, 89. Transmission of subterraneous heat, so as to produce hot springs, &c. § 90, 91.

SECTION III

PHENOMENA COMMON TO STRATIFIED AND UNSTRATIFIED BODIES.

p. 97

Chemical agents which produce the decomposition of mineral substances at the surface, § 92, 93. Mechanical agents, § 95, 96. Proofs of wearing from the sea shore, § 97, 98. Rivers, § 99, 100. Defiles among mountains, § 102. Supply of the soil from the decomposition of rocks, § 103. Gravel in the soil, § 104, 105. Gold found in the soil, § 106. Tin, § 107. Proofs of waste from mountainous countries, § 108, 109. Structure of Valleys, § 111. Transportation of stones, § 112. Nearest measure of the waste, § 113. General remarks, § 114, 115. No production of minerals on the surface, § 116. Reproduction at the bottom of the sea, § 117. Continued system of decay and renovation, § 118. Defence against the charge of impiety, 119. Antiquity and order of the revolutions of the globe, § 120, 121, 122, 123, 124. Consistency with the Sacred Writings, § 125. Scope of this theory of the earth distinguishes it from others; beauty and extent of its views, § 126. New facts, § 127. Comparison of this theory with that of Buffon, § 129. Of Lazzaro Moro, § 130. Plutonic system, § 131. Distinguished by the principle of compression, § 132. Explains the oblate figure of the earth, ib. Prejudices against this system, § 133. What may be expected from the progress of science, § 134.

NOTES AND ADDITIONS.

Note i.—Origin of Calcareous Earth.

p. 143

Dr Hutton's opinion on this subject accurately stated, § 135. Misrepresented by Kirwan, § 136.

Note ii.—Origin of Coal.

p. 147

Vegetable origin of coal. Opinion of Buffon, § 137.—of Arduino, ib.—of Lehman, § 138. Distinction attempted between wood coal and mineral coal, § 139. Not of different origin, but gradually pass one into the other, § 140. Bovey coal, § 141. Kirwan derives the matter of mineral coal from the decomposition of hornblende, &c. 143. Absurdity of this supposition, § 144, 145, 146, 147.

Note iii.—Primitive Mountains.

p. 160

Lehman introduced the term Primitive mountains, § 149. Supposed more ancient than organized bodies, § 150. Stratification of primitive mountains denied by Pini, and maintained by Saussure, § 151.

Note iv.—Primary Strata not Primitive.

p. 163

Shells found in primary strata, § 152. Sandstone in primary mountains, § 153. Quartzy sand in the schistus of the Grampians, ib. Rocks distinguished by Werner into three orders, § 154. Objections to this arrangement, § 155.

Note v.—Transportation of the Materials of the Strata.

p. 171

The transportation of materials, objected to by the Neptunists, is implied in their own system, § 156, 157, 158. Proofs of great transportation from the animal and vegetable remains, found in rocks, § 160.

Note vi.—Kirwan's Notion of Precipitation.

p. 180

Difficulty, of precipitating the materials dissolved in the chaotic fluid, § 162. Insufficiency of the explanation attempted, ib.

Note vii.—Compression in the Mineral Regions.

p. 181

Effects ascribed to compression by Newton, compared will the effects ascribed to it in this theory, § 163. Fallacy of Kirwan's argument concerning the fusion of Carrara marble, § 165, 166. Heat of the mineral region may be supported without fuel, § 167. Quotation from Newton's Optics, ib. General remarks, § 169.

Note viii.—Sparry Structure of Calcareous Petrifactions.

p. 190

Sparry and organic structure co-exist in certain fossils, § 171. Sparry and stratified structure co-exist in gneiss, marble, &c. § 172.

Note ix.—Petroleum, &c.

p. 194

Petroleum, &c. from the distillation of coal, § 173. Gradation from petroleum to coal often met with, § 174. Connection of amber and coal, § 175. Why mines of blind coal have not always petroleum mines near them, § 176.

Note x.—The Height above the Level of the Sea, at which Marks of Aqueous Deposition are now found.

p. 199

These marks consist either in stratification or in marine objects, § 177. The marks of stratification observed, 14739 feet above the sea, § 178. Shells in Peru, 14190, § 179. Kirwan's mistake concerning these shells, § 180. His error similar to Voltaire's, § 181.

Note xi.—Fracture and Dislocation of the Strata.

p. 204

Slips, § 182. Rib of limestone in a slip near Huddersfield, § 183, 184. Singular fracture of pudding-stones at Oban in Argyleshire, § 185. Similar phenomena observed by Saussure between Nice and Genoa, ib. Remarks on it, § 186.

Note xii.—Elevation and Inflection of the Strata.

p. 209

Junction of primary and secondary strata, § 187. Breccia incumbent on the primary, § 188. Junction of the primary and secondary strata: At Torbay in Devonshire, § 190,—coast of Berwickshire, § 191,—Cullen in Banffshire, § 193,—Ardencaple in Dunbartonshire, Arran, &c. § 194,—Pembrokeshire, § 195,—Jedburgh, § 196,—Ingleborough in Yorkshire, § 197,—Cumberland, § 198. Inflection of the strata, § 199. Remarkable instances in the Alps and Pyrenees, § 200, 201,—on Ben-Lawers in Perthshire, § 202,—coast of Berwickshire, ib.—Plymouth, § 203. Strata suffering such inflections have been soft and ductile, § 204. General property of these inflections, § 205, 206. uniform stretch of the primary strata, § 207. Inferences as to the nature of the elevating force, § 208. Imperfection of other theories. Crystallisation, ib. Marks of undulæ in the schistus, § 209. Elevation of the strata a stronghold of the Huttonian theory, § 210. Elevation of the strata enables us to see far into the interior of the earth, § 211.

Note xiii.—Metallic Veins.

p. 239

Specimens of native iron, § 212, 213. Margraaf's specimen, § 214. Kirwan's hypothesis, § 215. Increase of the specific gravity of native gold by fusion, no argument against its igneous origin, § 216. Specimens of gold and silver shooting through quartz, an argument in favour of the Huttonian theory, § 218, 219. Proof in favour of the same from chalcedony including calcareous spar, § 220. Matter that fills veins not from above or from either side, § 221. Opinion of the Neptunists, § 222. Supposed fact that veins are less rich as the depth increases, § 223. No marks of horizontal deposition in veins; their coating differs from stratification, § 224. Neptunists appear to be misled by the term Stratification, § 225, 226. Veins heave or shift one another, § 227. Vast force employed for that purpose, § 228. Veins of different formation, § 231. Pieces of rock insulated in veins, § 232. Supposition that veins have been filled by infiltrations, absurd, 233. Lenticular veins, and Pipe veins, § 234.

Note xiv.—On Whinstone.

p. 260

Whinstone, neither of volcanic nor aqueous formation, § 235. Zeolite and carbonate of lime included in whinstone, but not in lava, ib. Not introduced by infiltration, § 236. Disposition of whinstone mountains differs from that of streams of lava, § 237. This argument first employed by Mr Strange, § 238. His general views of this subject, § 239. Explanation of the regular structure of whinstone hills, according to Dr Hutton's theory, § 240. Many hills supposed to be extinguished volcanoes, are rocks of real whinstone that has flowed deep under the surface. Vein of whinstone mistaken for a stream of lava by Faujas, § 241, 242. Submarine volcanoes of Dolomieu, § 243. Objections to this theory, § 244, 245. Dolomieu in another place contends for the aqueous formation of basaltes, § 246. His arguments answered; also those of Bergman, § 248, 249. Argument of Werner for the aqueous origin of basaltes, § 250. Remarks on the supposed gradual transition of basaltes to argillaceous schistus, § 251, 252. Of the shells said to be found in basaltes, § 253. Instances from Portrush in Ireland, and from Cerigo on the Coast of Greece, ib. and 254,—from the Veronese, § 255. Objections to the Neptunian formation of whinstone, founded on the difference between it and the contiguous stratified rocks, § 256. On the resemblance of the strata below and above certain masses of whinstone, § 257. On the irregularity of the thickness of those masses, § 258. Wedge form masses of whinstone included between strata, § 259. Consequences of this wedge form, § 260. Sandstone fragments included in whin, § 261, 262. Bending of the strata contiguous to whinstone, § 264. Induration, § 265, 266. Charring of coal by whin, § 267. Of the manner in which the bitumen may have been driven off by heat, § 268. Two kinds of fossil coke, § 269. Graduation into plumbago, ib. and 270. Only remaining objection obviated by Sir James Hall's experiments, § 271.

Note xv.—On Granite.

p. 307

Granite veins of two kinds, § 274. Veins Of which the communication with large masses of the same stone is not visible: At the Isle of Coll in the Hebrides, § 275,—at Portsoy, § 276,—in Cornwall, § 277,—in Glentilt, § 278. Veins visibly connected with larger masses. Argument furnished by them in favour of this theory, § 279, 280. Impossibility of their being formed by infiltration, § 281. Veins of this kind in Arran, § 282,—Galloway, § 283,—sides of Loch Chloney, Invernessshire, §284,—St Michael's Mount, Cornwall § 285. Fragments of schistus contained in granite, § 287.

2. Granite of Portsoy.

p. 320

Description of this granite, § 288. Pierre graphique of M. Patrin not perfectly the same with that of Portsoy, § 289. Quartz crystallized in the pierre graphique, § 290. Instances of quartz crystallized in other granites. In that of St Agnes in Cornwall, § 291. Whether this crystallization is only found in secondary granites, § 292.

3. Stratification of Granite.

p. 326

Question stated concerning the stratification of granite, § 293. Remarkable examples of stratified granite at Chorley Forest, Leicestershire, and at Fassnet Water in Berwickshire, § 295. Stratification of Mont Blanc, and the Aiguilles of Chamouni maintained by Saussure, § 296, 297. Seems nevertheless doubtful, § 298. In the granite mountains of Arran doubtful; § 300. Explanation of the stratification of granite in this theory, § 301. If granitic veins were found proceeding from real granitic strata, they could not be explained on the principles here laid down, § 302. No such veins have been discovered, § 303. Answer to an objection made to the igneous origin of granitic mountains, § 304, 305. Of the proportion of the earth's surface occupied by granite rocks, § 306. Not exceeding a ninetieth part, § 307, 311. Extent of granite in Scotland erroneously estimated by Dr Hutton, § 312. Amounts perhaps to a twenty-fourth of the whole surface, § 313. Observations on Mr Kirwan's opinion, § 314.

Note xvi.—Rivers and Lakes.

p. 350

The rivers have hollowed out the valleys, § 315. Illustration from the course of the Danube, § 316. Courses of many rivers retain marks of having consisted of a series of lakes, § 317, 318. Filling up and draining of lakes, § 320. Instances from the lakes in Cumberland, § 321. Lake of Geneva, § 322. Lakes in North America, ib. Cataracts, § 323. Difficulties in explaining the generation and continuance of lakes exemplified in that of Geneva, § 324. Attempt to resolve these difficulties, § 325, 326, 327, 328. All lakes not equally subject to them, § 329. Wasting of the land by the rivers, proved from the mouths of rivers on bold coasts, § 330. Examples from Cornwall, § 331.

Note xvii.—Remains of Decomposed Rocks.

p. 371

Plain of Crau, § 334. Its gravel from the decomposition of pudding-stone, § 385. Same true of much of the gravel in this island, § 337, 338. Mount Rigi in Switzerland the remains of a body of pudding-stone, § 339. Measure of the destruction in the stratified rocks sometimes, afforded by the unstratified, § 340, 341. Rate at which the elevation of mountains has been supposed to decrease, § 342.

Note xviii.—Transportation of Stones, &c.

p. 381

Gravel smaller and rounder the farther from its native place, § 343. Different sources of caillou roulés, § 344, 345. Stones that have begun their migration before the cutting out of the present valleys, § 346. Declivity necessary to enable stones to travel from the top of Mont Blanc to the top of Mont Jura, § 347. Granite from Mont Blanc found eastward in the valley of the Drance, § 348. Machinery employed by nature in transporting rocks, § 349, 350. Instances of transported stones of great size,—from the vicinity of Geneva, § 351, 352,—from the Isle of Arran, 353. How gravity may contribute to the moving of large stones, even when the declivity is small, § 354. Rocking-stones, § 355. Stone in Borrowdale,—in the valley of Urseren, § 356. Large stones are sometimes the remains of veins, § 357. Of the hypothesis of a debacle, § 358. Structure of valleys unfavourable to this hypothesis, § 359, 360. Particularly of valleys close at the ends, § 361, 362. Whether the supposition of a debacle is necessary to explain the moving of large masses of rock, § 364. Whether the abrupt faces of hills indicate the existence of any sudden torrent, &c. § 365. Fact concerning the steep faces of the mountains in the south of Africa, § 366. A fact stated that would lead necessarily to belief in a debacle; no example of it has yet occurred, § 367.

Note xix.—Transportation of Materials by the Sea.

p. 413

Of the manner in which the detritus of the land is spread out over the bottom of the sea, § 369, 370. Seas rendered shallower, § 371. Sand banks, § 372. Great system of currents traced in the Atlantic, § 373, 374. How far this transportation of materials may affect the earth's diurnal motion, § 376, 377. Kirwan's misapprehension of Frisi, and of Major Rennell, § 378, 379. His mistake about the tides, § 380, 381,—and about the formation of sand banks, § 384.

Note xx.—Inequalities of the Planetary Motions.

p. 437

These inequalities all periodical, § 385. Circumstances on which this depends, § 386. Affinity of this conclusion to that which Dr Hutton has established with respect to the changes at the surface of the earth, § 387.

Note xxi.—Changes in the Apparent Level of the Sea.

p. 441

Relative level of the sea and land subject to change, § 388. Proofs that it has sunk, on the shores of this island, § 389,—on the coasts of France and Flanders, § 390, 391,—on the shores of the Baltic, § 392. This has not arisen from the depression of the sea, but from the elevation of the land, § 393, 394. The surface of the Hadriatic higher now than formerly, § 395, 396. Also of the Mediterranean, § 398. Irregularities in these changes, § 399, 400. Hypothesis of Frisi, that towards the equator the sea is every where rising, § 401. Disproved, ib. Conclusion, § 402.

Note xxii.—Fossil Bones.

p. 458

Vegetable and animal remains contained in the fossil kingdom, § 403. Of those that are enveloped or penetrated with calcareous earth, § 405, 406. Of the bones buried in the loose earth, § 407. Bones in Siberia referred to the rhinoceros and the elephant, § 408. Those on the Ohio doubtful, § 408, 409. Opinion of Camper, § 410.—of Cuvier, § 411. Objections to the latter, ib. Enumeration of five species of animals now extinct, § 412. Change in the animal, and vegetable kingdom may account for bones found in countries where no analogous species now exists, § 414. Proofs that the animals whose bones are found in Siberia inhabited that country, § 415-417.

Note xxiii.—Geology of Kirwan and De Luc.

p. 477

These authors have improperly drawn religion into their quarrel with Dr Hutton, § 419. De Luc writes a history of what befel the earth before the creation of the sun, § 420. Remarks on Kirwan's geological writings, § 422, 423, 424, 425.

Note xxiv.—System of Buffon.

p. 483

In what Buffon's theory of the earth and Dr Hutton's agree, and in what they differ, § 426, 427. Great merit of Buffon, notwithstanding his errors, § 428.

Note xxv.—Figure of the Earth.

p. 488

Physical cause of the earth's oblate figure not obvious from its present condition, § 429. How explained by the Neptunists, § 430. Examination of their solution, § 431, 432. Contradiction implied in it, § 433. Insufficiency of Buffon's explanation, § 434. Of the principle on which the oblateness of the earth may be accounted for in Dr Hutton's theory, § 435. Of the changes that would happen in the figure of a terraqueous body like the earth, supposing it ever so irregular, § 436, 437, 438. Two different causes of change, ib. Ultimate figure, that by which the causes of change are best resisted, § 439. Spheroidal figure, never perfectly acquired, § 440. Agreement of this theory with observation, § 441. Probable extension of the system of waste, and renovation to the other planets, § 442, 443. Confirmation from the system of Saturn, § 444, 445.

Note xxvi.—Prejudices relating to the Theory of the Earth.

p. 510

Alleged by some that a theory of the earth ought not at present to be attempted, § 446. The quick succession of geological theories has partly arisen from their object being misunderstood, § 447. A succession of theories is often a continued approximation to the truth, § 448. The more various the phenomena of any class, the greater the chance of discovering their true cause, § 449. Reason to think that the leading facts in geology are now known, § 450, 451. A tendency may be observed in geological systems to approach to one another, and to the Huttonian, § 452. Example from that of Saussure, § 453,—of Dolomieu, § 454, 455. The discoveries of Dr Black were necessary for understanding the true theory of the earth, § 457. Use of theory in matters of observation, § 458, &c.