ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

STATEMENT OF THE RESOURCES FOR INVESTIGATING HISTORY, AND PROOFS OF THE REGULARITY OF HUMAN ACTIONS. THESE ACTIONS ARE GOVERNED BY MENTAL AND PHYSICAL LAWS: THEREFORE BOTH SETS OF LAWS MUST BE STUDIED, AND THERE CAN BE NO HISTORY WITHOUT THE NATURAL SCIENCES.

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Materials for writing history 1–3

Narrow range of knowledge possessed by historians 4–5

Object of the present work 6

Human actions, if not the result of fixed laws, must be due to chance or to supernatural interference 8

Probable origin of free-will and predestination 9–12

Theological basis of predestination, and metaphysical basis of free-will 12–16

The actions of men are caused by their antecedents, which exist either in the human mind or in the external world 18–20

Therefore history is the modification of man by nature, and of nature by man 20–21

Statistics prove the regularity of actions in regard to murder and other crimes 22–26

Similar proof respecting suicides 27–29

Also respecting the number of marriages annually contracted 31–32

And respecting the number of letters sent undirected 32

The historian must ascertain whether mind or nature has most influenced human actions; and therefore there can be no history without physical science 33–35

Note A. Passages from Kant on free-will and necessity 35–38

CHAPTER II.

INFLUENCE EXERCISED BY PHYSICAL LAWS OVER THE ORGANIZATION OF SOCIETY AND OVER THE CHARACTER OF INDIVIDUALS.

Man is affected by four classes of physical agents; namely, climate, food, soil, and the general aspect of nature 39–41

Operation of these agents on the accumulation of wealth 41–51

Their operation on the distribution of wealth 51–64

Illustrations of these principles from Ireland 65–67

From Hindustan 69–82

From Egypt 82–93

From Central America 93–94

And from Mexico and Peru 95

Operation of physical laws in Brazil 101–108

Influence of the general aspects of nature upon the imagination and the understanding 118–119

Under some aspects, nature is more prominent than man; under others, man more than nature 120

In the former case the imagination is more stimulated than the understanding, and to this class all the earliest civilizations belong 120–121

The imagination is excited by earthquakes and volcanoes 122–124

And by danger generally 125–126

Also by an unhealthy climate making life precarious 126–130

From these causes the civilizations exterior to Europe are mainly influenced by the imagination, those in Europe by the understanding 130–132

This proposition illustrated by a comparison between Hindustan and Greece 132–147

Further illustration from Central America 147–148

Chemical and physiological note on the connection between food and animal heat 148–151

CHAPTER III.

EXAMINATION OF THE METHOD EMPLOYED BY METAPHYSICIANS FOR DISCOVERING MENTAL LAWS.

In the last chapter, two leading facts have been established, which broadly separate Europe from other parts of the world 152–156

Hence it appears that of the two classes of mental and physical laws the mental are the more important for the history of Europe 156–157

Examination of the two metaphysical methods of generalizing mental laws 158–165

Failure of these methods 165–167

CHAPTER IV.

MENTAL LAWS ARE EITHER MORAL OR INTELLECTUAL. COMPARISON OF MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL LAWS, AND INQUIRY INTO THE EFFECT PRODUCED BY EACH ON THE PROGRESS OF SOCIETY.

The historical method of studying mental laws is superior to the metaphysical method 168–174

The progress of society is twofold, moral and intellectual 174–175

Comparison of the moral with the intellectual element 175

There is no evidence that the natural faculties of man improve 176–177

Progress, therefore, depends on an improvement in the circumstances under which the faculties come into play 178

The standard of action having varied in every age, the causes of action must be variable 179

But moral truths have not changed 179

And intellectual truths are constantly changing 181

Intellectual truths are the cause of progress 182

Ignorant men are mischievous in proportion to their sincerity 183–185

Illustrations of this from Rome and Spain 185–188

The diminution of religious persecution is owing to the progress of knowledge 188–190

The diminution of the warlike spirit is owing to the same cause 190–192

Illustrations from Russia and Turkey 195–197

As civilization advances, men of intellect avoid becoming soldiers 198

Illustrations of this from ancient Greece and modern Europe 198–202

The three principal ways in which the progress of knowledge has lessened the warlike spirit are:

1. The invention of gunpowder 203–209

2. The discoveries made by political economists 210–211

3. The application of steam to purposes of travelling 219–223

Inference to be drawn as to the causes of social progress 224–226

CHAPTER V.

INQUIRY INTO THE INFLUENCE EXERCISED BY RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND GOVERNMENT.

Recapitulation of preceding arguments 227

Moral feelings influence individuals, but do not affect society in the aggregate 228–229

This being as yet little understood, historians have not collected proper materials for writing history 230

Reasons why the present history is restricted to England 231–235

Comparison of the history of England with that of France 235–236

With that of Germany 237–240

With that of the United States of America 240–242

Necessity of ascertaining the fundamental laws of intellectual progress 243

Much may be gained in that respect from studying the histories of Germany, America, France, Spain, and Scotland 244–246

Deductive spirit in Scotland 246–252

Influence of religion on the progress of society 253–266

Illustration from the efforts of missionaries 254–256

Illustration from the Hebrews 257–258

Illustration from the early history of Christianity 259–262

And from Sweden and Scotland 263–266

Influence of literature on the progress of society 268–272

Influence of government on the progress of society 272–287

Illustrated by repeal of the corn-laws 273–274

The best legislation abrogates former legislation 275

The interference of politicians with trade has injured trade 276–278

Legislators have caused smuggling with all its attendant crimes 278–280

They have also increased hypocrisy and perjury 281–283

By their laws against usury they have increased usury 283–284

By other laws they have hindered the advance of knowledge 284–285

England has been less interfered with in these ways than other nations, and is therefore more prosperous than they 286–287

CHAPTER VI.

ORIGIN OF HISTORY, AND STATE OF HISTORICAL LITERATURE DURING THE MIDDLE AGES.

Conclusions arrived at by the preceding investigations 288

An inquiry into the changes in historical researches will throw light on the changes in society 289–290

The earliest histories are ballads 291–295

One cause of error in history was the invention of writing 296–300

A change of religion in any country also tends to corrupt its early history 300–307

But the most active cause of all was the influence of the clergy 307–308

Absurdities which were consequently believed 309–317

Illustration of this from the history of Charlemagne by Turpin 318–321

And from the history of the Britons by Geoffrey 321–325

The first improvement in writing history began in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 325

But credulity was still prevalent, as is seen in Comines 327–328

And in the predictions of Stœffler respecting the Deluge 330

Also in the work of Dr. Horst on the Golden Tooth 331–332

CHAPTER VII.

OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH INTELLECT FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

This absurd way of writing history was the natural result of the state of the age 333

The spirit of doubt was a necessary precursor of improvement 334

Hence the supreme importance of scepticism 335–336

Origin of religious toleration in England 337

Hooker contrasted with Jewel 339–343

Scepticism and spirit of inquiry on other subjects 343–346

This tendency displayed in Chillingworth 347–350

Chillingworth compared with Hooker and Jewel 350

Subsequent movement in the same direction, and increasing indifference to theological matters 352–355

Great advantage of this 356–358

Under James I. and Charles I. this opposition to authority assumes a political character 359–361

Under Charles II. it takes a frivolous form at court 363

Influence of this spirit upon Sir Thomas Browne 365–367

Its influence upon Boyle 367–370

It causes the establishment of the Royal Society 371

Impetus now given to physical science, and attempts of the clergy to oppose it 372

The clergy are naturally hostile to physical science, because it lessens their own power 372–373

Illustration of this by the superstition of sailors and agriculturists as compared with soldiers and mechanics 375–380

Legislative improvements in the reign of Charles II. in spite of political degradation 380–386

These improvements were due to the sceptical and inquiring spirit 387–388

Aided by the vices of the king 388

And by his dislike of the church 389

He encouraged Hobbes, and neglected the ablest of the clergy 390–393

The clergy, to recover their ground, allied themselves with James II. 394–396

This alliance was dissolved by the Declaration of Indulgence 397–399

The clergy then united with the dissenters and brought about the Revolution of 1688 399–400

Importance of the Revolution 401–403

But the clergy regretted it, and repented of their own act 403

Hostility between them and William III. 405–410

Hence a schism in the church 410–413

Fresh encouragement thus given to scepticism 413–414

Convocation first despised, and then abolished 414–415

After the Revolution the ablest men confine themselves to secular professions, and avoided entering the church 415

The clergy lost all offices out of the church, and their numbers diminished in both Houses of Parliament 416–418

The church rallied for a moment under Anne 418–420

But was weakened by the dissenters, headed by Wesley and Whitefield 420–424

Theology separated from morals and from politics 424–426

Rapid succession of sceptical controversies 427–429

Knowledge begins to be diffused, and takes a popular form 430–433

Political meetings, and publication of parliamentary debates 433–434

Doctrine of personal representation, and idea of independence 436

Corresponding change in the style of authors 436–439

Hence great reforms became inevitable 439–440

This tendency was aided by George I. and George II. 441–443

But discouraged by George III., under whom began a dangerous political reaction 444–446

Ignorance of George III. 446

Subserviency of Pitt 446–449

Incompetence of other statesmen, and the king's hatred of great men 449–451

Deterioration of the House of Lords 451–455

Ability and accomplishments of Burke 458–461

He opposed the views of George III., and was neglected by him 462–467

Burke's subsequent hallucinations and violence 467–476

The king now favoured him 476–477

Policy of George III. respecting America 478–482

This policy reacted upon England 482–483

Policy in regard to France 483–486

This also reacted upon England 486

And produced arbitrary laws against the liberties of England 487–493

Which were zealously enforced by the executive 494–496

Gloomy political prospects of England late in the eighteenth century 496–498

But, owing to the progress of knowledge, a counter reaction was preparing 498–502

To which, and to the increasing power of public opinion, England owes her great reforms of the nineteenth century 502–505