NOTES FOR TEACHERS.
Reading edition
AGREEMENT.
Before Lesson 8 is assigned, the pupils may be required to note, in Lessons 6 and 7, the subjects that add s to denote more than one, and then to mark the changes that occur in the predicates when the s is dropped from these subjects. In Lesson 8, the predicates may be changed by adding or dropping s, and other subjects may be found to correspond. In Lesson 9, s may be dropped from the plural subjects, and other predicates may be found to agree.
At this stage of the work we should give no formal rules, and should avoid such technical terms as number, person, tense, etc. The pupils may be led to discover rules for themselves, and to state them informally. Exercises and questions may be so directed that the pupils may draw some such conclusion as the following:—
When a simple form of the verb is used to tell what one thing does, s or es is added (unless the subject is I or you).
Let the pupils see that the s-form of the verb is used only in telling what one thing does, not what it did; as, "The boy runs," "The boy ran"; and that its subject always stands for the one spoken of; as, "He runs," "I run."
Before Lesson 12 is assigned, attention may be called to the use of is, was, and has, in Lesson 11 and elsewhere. For the predicates introduced by these words let the pupils find subjects which name more than one, that they may note the change of is to are, was to were, and has to have. The forms does and do may also be introduced, and these exercises continued till the pupils are led to discover some such rule as the following:—
Is, was, has, and does are used with subjects denoting but one. Are, were, have, and do are used with subjects denoting more than one.
We suggest that the form of a question and the use of the question mark be introduced after Lesson 12, and that the pupils be allowed to change the sentences in Lessons 11 and 12 by placing the subject after the first auxiliary. A straight line may be drawn under each subject, and a waving line under each predicate, thus:—
~Was~ /Napoleon/ ~banished?~
The sentences given for analysis will furnish material for making interrogative sentences, and for justifying the agreement of verbs.
In connection with Lesson 19 attention may be called to the agreement of verbs with I and you. Exercises may be given from which the pupils will draw the following conclusions:—
I can be used with am, was, have, and do. You may mean one or more than one, but the verb always agrees as if you meant more than one.
Exercises may be given requiring the pupils to use such expressions as "You were," "They were," "We were," "He doesn't," etc., and to repeat them aloud till the ear is accustomed to the right form.
When predicate verbs immediately follow their subjects, there is little danger of errors in agreement, except that was is often used incorrectly for were, and don't for doesn't. The chief object of introducing these exercises here is to train the pupils' observation so that they will readily and naturally note the agreement of the subject and predicate when these terms are transposed, or are separated by other words. To determine the correct form of the verb in such cases, let the pupils see how it sounds when placed immediately after its subject. We suggest exercises like the following:—
1 is are 2 was were 3 has have 4 does do 5 comes come 6 goes go 7 thinks think 8 writes write
1. With what kind of letter ~(4)~ each of these names ~begin~? 2. Under this rule ~(1) found~ important exceptions. 3. The farm, with all the cattle and horses, ~(2) sold~. 4. With what mark ~(4)~ imperative sentences ~end~? 5. Every effort of the friends of these measures (3) failed. 6. There (5) trying times in every man's life. 7. One of them (6) to Vassar College. 8. Not one in ten (7) about this. 9. Neither of you (8) correctly. 10. After this (5) the calisthenic exercises. 11. A cargo of Delaware peaches (3) arrived. 12. There (6) the cars. 13. There (6) a train of cars.
After these blanks have been filled with the verbs above, as indicated by the numbers, the sentences may be repeated aloud till the correct form is familiar.
Let the pupils see that in (2), Lesson 36, were identified is asserted of two things, and that in (3) was anticipated is asserted of one of two things, but not of both. Let them give other examples of connected subjects with verbs singular in form, and with verbs plural in form. The meaning of singular and plural may be explained, and the pupils may form some such rule as the following:—
With two or more subjects connected by and the verb agrees in the plural.
With two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor the verb agrees in the singular.
The pupils may examine such sentences as—
1. Each word and gesture was suited to the thought; 2. Every bud, leaf, and blade of grass rejoices after the warm rain; 3. No dew, no rain, no cloud comes to the relief of the parched earth;—
and note that each, every, and no show that the things named in the different subjects are taken separately, and that the verbs are therefore singular.
Such sentences as—
"In the death of Franklin, a philosopher and statesman was lost to the world"—
may be given to show that subjects connected by and may name the same thing, and so take a verb in the singular.
Such examples as the following may be given and justified:—
1. Beauty and utility are combined in nature. 2. Either beauty or utility appears in every natural object. 3. Here is neither beauty nor utility. 4. Time and tide wait for no man. 5. Wisdom and prudence dwell with the lowly man. 6. Does either landlord or tenant profit by this bill? 7. Neither landlords nor tenants profit by this bill. 8. Every fly, bee, beetle, and butterfly is provided with six feet. 9. That desperate robber and murderer was finally secured. 10. That desperate robber and that murderer were finally secured. 11. The builder and owner of the yacht has sailed from Liverpool. 12. The builder and the owner of the yacht have sailed from Liverpool. 13. A lame and blind man was provided with food and lodging. 14. A lame and a blind man were provided with food and lodging.
Particular attention may be called to examples 9-14, that the pupils may note the effect of repeating that, the, and a.
Pupils should early learn that rules in grammar should not be followed rigidly and blindly, as they generally have variations and exceptions. Caution, however, should be used in presenting exceptions, lest the pupils become confused. They may be presented in reviews after the rules and general principles are well understood. They need not be formally stated, but may be introduced in the way of observation lessons that appeal to the judgment rather than to the memory. In this way such constructions as the following may be introduced:—
1. Neither he nor _I am _going. (Better—He is not going, nor am I.) 2. Neither John nor his sisters were there. 3. Action, and not words, is needed. 4. Bread and milk is good food. 5. The committee are unable to agree on their report. 6. The committee has made its report.
Other examples may be given till the pupils are led to discover that in examples like (1) and (2) the verb agrees with its nearest subject, and that the plural subject is usually placed next to the verb; that in (3) the verb agrees with the affirmative subject, another verb being understood with the negative subject; that in (4) "bread and milk" represents one article of food; and that in (5) the individuals of the committee are thought of, while in (6) the committee as a whole is thought of. In (5) and (6) the agreement of the pronoun may also be noted. Pronouns may be introduced into many of the preceding exercises and the pupils led to apply to the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent what has been learned of the agreement of the verb with its subject. Let the pupils determine why the following connected subjects are arranged in the proper order:—
1. You and I are invited. 2. Mary and I are invited. 3. You and Mary are invited. 4. You and Mary and I are invited.
WRITING NAMES—CAPITALS AND ABBREVIATIONS. [Footnote: For list of abbreviations see p. 191.]
Pupils may copy the following list of names, and note all peculiarities in form:—
Texas, state, river, Red River, city, Albany, New Orleans, Kansas City, statesman, Thomas Jefferson, Thos. Jefferson, author, Charles Dickens, Chas. Dickens, writer, George William Curtis, Geo. Wm. Curtis, Geo. W. Curtis, poet, John Greenleaf Whittier, John G. Whittier, J. G. Whittier, gulf, sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, lake, Lake Erie, general, General Robert Edmund Lee, Gen. Robt. E. Lee, doctor, Doctor Valentine Mott, Dr. V. Mott, professor, Prof. Goldwin Smith.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The Song of Hiawatha." John Bunyan wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress." The subject for composition was "A Day in the Woods."
We give the following questions to illustrate our method of conducting an
+Observation Lesson+.—Are city and Albany both names? What difference can you discover in meaning? What in form? Which of the names just written are class names? Which are individual names? Mention an individual name made up of two names; one of three names; one of four. How many capitals do you find in each of the names just mentioned? Mention seven words that are written without capitals as class names, and again with capitals as parts of individual names. Mention a word that is shortened, or abbreviated, by omitting all but the first, or initial, letter. Mention an abbreviation containing two letters; one containing three; one containing four. What new use of the period have you discovered in this exercise? What three words in this exercise are used together as the title of a book? What four as the title of a poem? What five as the subject of a school composition? Each of these groups may be regarded as a kind of individual name. Besides the first word, what words begin with capitals in each of these three groups? Notice that these are the principal words.
For another exercise the pupils may copy the following sentences, noting carefully capitals and punctuation marks:—
1. The city of Chicago is on Lake Michigan. 2. The steamer City of Chicago sails from Jersey City. 3. The island of Cuba is under Spanish rule. 4. The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea. 5. The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone is an English statesman. 6. The subject for composition was "The View from my Window." 7. In the evening Aunt Mary entertained my cousin and me with stories of Uncle Remus. 8. Miss Evans—afterward Mrs. Lewes—was the author of "The Mill on the Floss." 9. We may call the Supreme Being our Heavenly Father. 10. The Old Testament points to the coming of a Messiah. 11. George I., George II., George III., George IV., and William IV. preceded Victoria.
The teacher may find the following questions suggestive:—
+Observation Lesson+.—Is Chicago, or city of Chicago the individual name of the place mentioned in (1)? Is Chicago, or City of Chicago the name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned in (2) named Jersey, or Jersey City? Is the body of water mentioned in (1) known as Michigan, or Lake Michigan? What is the name of the island mentioned in (3)?—in (4)? Is Irish, or Irish Sea the name of the body of water mentioned in (4)?
Notice that Spanish, in (3), and English, in (5), are not names, or nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the individual names Spain and England.
What names in (7) usually denote relationship? Notice that such words as uncle, captain, professor, etc., do not necessarily begin with capitals unless prefixed to individual names.
What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name? What in (8)? Which words of these groups are regarded as the most important?
In (8) do you find a period after Miss?—after Mrs.?
Miss is not written as an abbreviation.
What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity? What is Old Testament the particular name of?
What do you discover in the names found in (11)?
For other exercises, pupils may be required to bring in lists of geographical and biographical names, titles of books, etc.
We earnestly recommend the introduction here of letter-writing to illustrate the use of capitals, abbreviations, and punctuation. (See pp. 146-161.) The writing of headings, introductions, conclusions, and superscriptions will give most excellent practice in capitals, etc. The body of the letter may be directed to the same end. For instance, an invitation to a friend may be accompanied by a description of the route to be taken and of the places or objects of interest to be seen on the way. Or the writer may mention some of the books he has read, with the names of the characters and of the places mentioned.
ADJECTIVES—CHOICE AND ARRANGEMENT.
Words denoting quality form a very large and important group. Our knowledge of things about us is a knowledge of their qualities. A writer's style is, to a large extent, determined by his use of adjectives. We therefore recommend special drill in the choice and the use of adjectives. The exercises given below may serve as suggestions to the teacher. Groups of adjectives like the following may be presented, the pupils being required to join them to appropriate nouns:—
Some Qualities learned directly through the Senses.
+Seeing+, scarlet crimson florid sallow opaque dingy vivid gorgeous gaudy variegated verdant transparent
+Hearing+, audible stunning thundering deafening purling husky monotonous discordant melodious
+Smelling+, fragrant balmy odorous rancid fetid aromatic
+Tasting+, acid acrid pungent delicious insipid brackish palatable savory luscious
+Feeling+. rough gritty hard keen tepid sultry
Pupils will find little difficulty in largely increasing the lists above. Many other groupings may be made; as, of qualities learned by comparison, measurement, or experiment; qualities of the mind; qualities pertaining to right and wrong, etc.
Groups of nouns like the following may be made, and the pupils may be required to mention as many qualities as possible belonging to each of the things named:—
chalk ice brooks clouds water snow ocean music
Pupils may mention animals properly described by the following adjectives:—
timid fleet cunning ferocious gentle graceful sagacious venomous
Careless persons and those that have a meager list of adjectives at command overwork and abuse such words as—
nice, awful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely.
We hear of nice mountains, awful pens, horrid ink, splendid pie, elegant beef, lovely cheese, etc.
Pupils may study the meaning of the six adjectives last mentioned, and use them to fill the following blanks:—
| distinction —————+ workmanship | calculation
| stillness —————+ chasm | rumbling
| child —————+ features | character
| palace —————+ victory | illumination
| manners —————+ taste | furniture
| deeds —————+ dreams | butchery
This work may very profitable be extended.
A word picture is often spoiled by using too many adjectives; as,
"A great, large, roomy, spacious hall"; "Superb, delicious, magnificent pumpkin-pie"; "A stingy, miserly, close-fisted fellow."
The italicized words may be omitted.
Pupils should be taught to watch for such errors, and to correct them.
Pupils may be required to copy choice selections from literature, and to note carefully capitals, punctuation, and the use of adjectives. We offer the following exercise as a specimen:—
We piled with care our nightly stack Of wood against the chimney-back,— The oaken log, green, huge, and thick, And on its top the stout back-stick; The knotty fore-stick laid apart, And filled between with curious art The ragged brush; then, hovering near, We watched the first red blaze appear, Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam On whitewashed wall and sagging beam, Until the old, rude-furnished room Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom.
Whittier.—Snow-Bound.
+Observation Lesson+.—Of what are the lines above a picture? Where, and in what kind of house, do you think this picture was seen?
What object is pictured by the help of five adjectives? Are the adjectives that precede the name of this object of the same rank? Are those that follow of the same rank? What noun is modified by three adjectives of different rank? What noun by three adjectives two of which are of the same rank? What difference is found in the punctuation of these several groups?
Notice how the noun crackle crackles as you pronounce it, and how the adjective sharp makes it penetrate. Notice how strong a picture is made in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives here used bring out the most prominent qualities of the room, and these qualities bring along with them into the imagination all the other qualities. This is what we must try to make our adjectives do.
Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explain the office of each.
What peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry?
Much that has been suggested above concerning the use of adjectives will apply to adverbs also.
ARRANGEMENT.
The following exercises are given to show how pupils may discover for themselves the natural order of words and phrases:—
(a) Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. (b) William's sister Mary is an excellent musician. (c) Everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright. (d) We saw it distinctly. (e) We had often been there. (f) Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.
+Observation Lesson+.—The words and the phrases in the sentences above stand in their Natural Order.
From (a) and (b) determine the natural order of the subject, predicate, and complement. From (b) determine the natural order of a possessive modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjective. From (c), (d), and (e) determine the several positions of an adverb joined to a verb. Determine from (c) the position of an adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb. Determine from (a) and (f) the natural order of a phrase.
Pupils may copy the following, and note the arrangement and the punctuation of the phrases:—
(g) This place is endeared to me by many associations. (h) To me, this place is endeared by many associations. (i) Your answers, with few exceptions, have been correctly given. (j) He applied for the position, without a recommendation.
+Observation Lesson+.—Phrases in their natural order follow the words they modify. When two or more phrases belong to the same word, the one most closely modifying it stands nearest to it.
In the first sentence above, to me tells to whom the place is endeared; by many associations tells how it is endeared to me, and is therefore placed after to me. Try the effect of placing to me last. Phrases, like adjectives, may be of different rank.
Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order. Notice that to me, in (h) above, is transposed, and thus made emphatic, and that it is set off by the comma.
In (i), the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential, thus making a break in the sentence. To make this apparent to the eye we set the phrase off by the comma.
Place the phrase of (i) in three other positions, and set it off. When the phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, how many commas do you need to set it off? How many, when it is in the middle?
Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase? After having been told that your answers were correct, would it be a disappointment to be told that they were not all correct? Is the interest in a story best kept up by first telling the important points and then the unimportant particulars? What then do you think of placing this phrase at the end?
What does the last phrase of (j) modify? Take out the comma, and then see whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase modifies.
In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often allowable, and the determining of their best possible position affords an almost unlimited opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment.
Such questions as those on (i) above may suggest a mode of easy approach to what is usually relegated to the province of rhetoric. Let the pupils see that phrases may be transposed for various reasons—for emphasis, as in (h) above; for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding his attention till the complete statement is made, as in (i) above, or in, "In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he approached"; for the sake of balancing the sentence by letting some of the modifying terms precede, and some follow, the principal parts, as, "In 1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to the throne"; and for other reasons.
Other selections maybe made and these exercises continued, the pupils discussing fully the effects of all possible changes.
Pupils may note the transposed words and phrases in the following sentences, explaining their office and the effect of the transposition:—
1. Victories, indeed, they were. 2. Down came the masts. 3. Here stands the man. 4. Doubtful seemed the battle. 5. Wide open stood the doors. 6. A mighty man is he. 7. That gale I well remember. 8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 9. Blood-red became the sun. 10. Louder waxed the applause. 11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 14. So died the great Columbus of the skies. 15. Aeneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old Anchises bear. 16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats. 17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared. 18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable.
Pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order, and explain the effect of the change:—
19. He could not avoid it. 20. He would not escape. 21. I must go. 22. He ended his tale here. 23. It stands written so. 24. She seemed young and sad. 25. I will make one more effort to save you. 26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 27. I came into the world helpless. 28. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin.
ORDER OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico? 32. Whom did you see? 33. What is poetry? 34. Which course will you choose? 35. Why are the days shorter in winter? 36. When was America discovered? 37. Were you there? 38. Has the North Pole been reached?
+Observation Lesson+.—When the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, is the order natural, or transposed? See (30) and (31) above.
When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a modifier of either, what is the order? See (32), (33), and (34).
When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order? See (35) and (36).
When there is no interrogative word, what is the order? See (37) and (38).
The sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons in analysis.
REVIEW—COMPOSITION.
We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and instructive article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective and adverb phrases, to vary the arrangement in every possible way, and to discuss the effects of these changes. Then, after finding the general subject and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may arrange these sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions as may be suggested.
RESTRICTIVE MODIFIERS—PUNCTUATION.
The chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers is in determining whether or not they are restrictive. The following examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson:—
(a) The words golden and oriole are pleasant to the ear. (b) Words, the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (c) Use words that are current. (d) Words, which are the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (e) The country anciently called Gaul is now called France. (f) France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks. (g) Glass bends easily when it is hot. (h) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad.
The following explanations may be drawn from the pupils:—
In (a) the application of words is limited, or restricted, to the two words mentioned; in (c) words is restricted to a certain kind. In (b) and (d) the modifiers do not restrict. They apply to all words and simply add information. In (e) the participial phrase restricts the application of country to one particular country; but in (f) the phrase describes without limiting. The omission of the comma in (g) shows that Glass bends easily is not offered as a general statement, but that the action is restricted to a certain time or condition. When it is hot is essential to the intended meaning. The punctuation of (h) shows that the speaker does not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what he has to say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. If (h) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him? the comma would be omitted. The sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the comma.
Let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive modifiers are omitted, and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to the sense. In such expressions as I myself, we boys, the explanatory words are not restrictive, but they combine closely with the modified term.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.
Adjective clauses allow little change in position. They usually follow closely the word modified. Often they may be contracted into adjectives or into adjective phrases.
Selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the study of adjective clauses. The position, punctuation, and choice of relatives may be noticed, and, as far as possible, the clauses may be changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases.
ADVERB CLAUSES.
An adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between its parts, or after it; as, "When it is hot, glass bends easily;" "Glass, when it is hot, bends easily;" "Glass bends easily when it is hot." Notice the punctuation of these examples.
Adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways. Clauses introduced by the comparatives as and than are usually found in an abbreviated form; as, "You are as old as he (is old);" "You are older than I (am old)." Attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for the objective. We suggest making selections for the study of adverb clauses.
NOUN CLAUSES.
Noun clauses may be contracted; as, "That we should obey is necessary" = "Obedience is necessary," or, "To obey is necessary;" "I can hardly realize that my friend is gone" = "I can hardly realize my friend's being gone." By substituting it for the subject clause, this clause maybe placed last and made explanatory; as, "It is necessary that we should obey." The object clause is sometimes transposed; as, "That my friend is gone, I can hardly realize." The noun clause may be made prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically; as,"His story, we believe, is exaggerated."
Notice the punctuation of the clauses above. The noun clause used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma. Noun clauses that are quotations need special treatment.
NOUN CLAUSES—QUOTATIONS.
We suggest the following observation lesson:—
1. Goldsmith says, "Learn the luxury of doing good." 2. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good. 3. "The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, cries out, 'Where is it?'" 4. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and asking where it is. 5. "To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eating without digesting." 6. May we not find "sermons in stones and good in everything"? 7. There is much meaning in the following quotation: "Books are embalmed minds." 8. We must ask, What are we living for? 9. We must ask what we are living for.
+Observation Lesson+.—Notice that the writer of (1) has copied into his sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two marks like inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which inclose this copied passage (quotation), are called Quotation Marks.
Name all the differences between (1) and (2). Is the same thought expressed in both? Which quotation would you call direct? Which, indirect?
Notice that the whole of (3) is a quotation, and that this quotation contains another quotation inclosed within single marks. Notice the order of the marks at the end of (3).
Point out the differences between (3) and (4). In which is a question quoted just as it would be asked? In which is a question merely referred to? Which question would you call direct? Which, indirect? Name every difference in the form of these.
In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a parenthetical clause? How are the parts marked?
Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. How does it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter?
In (7) a Colon precedes the quotation to show that it is formally introduced.
In (8) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions that, like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular person or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State the differences between (8) and (9).
In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed. Point out illustrations above.
Sum up what you have learned. (See rules for capitals, comma, colon, and quotation marks, pp. 140-143.)
Selections written in the colloquial style and containing frequent quotations and questions may be taken from reading-books, for examination, discussion, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses contracted, transposed, etc.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES.
Frequently independent clauses are contracted by using repeated parts but once and uniting the other parts into a compound term, as in Lesson 67. They are also contracted by omitting such words as may be readily understood; as, "Is it true, or not;" "He is a philosopher, not a poet." For punctuation, see rules for the comma and the semicolon, p. 141.
REVIEW—COMPOSITION.
We recommend that the teacher select some short article containing valuable information and break up each paragraph into short, disconnected expressions. One paragraph at a time may be put on the board for the pupils to copy. The general subject may be given, and the pupils may be required to find a proper heading for the paragraph. The different ways of connecting the expressions may be discussed in the class. By contracting, expanding, transposing, and by substituting entirely different words, a great variety of forms may be had. (The forms found in the "Example," p. 144, and the list of connectives, p. 190, may be helpful.) The pupils may then combine the different paragraphs into a composition. For the explanation of paragraph, see p. 145, and Exercises for Composition in the Supplement.
We give below material for one composition:—
Frog's spawn found in a pond. At first like a mass of jelly. Eggs can be distinguished.
In a few days curious little fish are hatched. These "tadpoles" are lively. Swim by means of long tails. Head very large—out of proportion. Appearance of all head and tail. This creature is a true fish. It breathes water-air by means of gills. It has a two-chambered heart.
Watch it day by day. Two little gills seen. These soon disappear. Hind legs begin to grow. Tail gets smaller. Two small arms, or forelegs, are seen. Remarkable change going on inside. True lungs for breathing air have been forming. Another chamber added to the heart.
As the gills grow smaller, it finds difficulty in breathing water-air. One fine day it pokes its nose out of the water. Astonished (possibly) to find that it can breathe in the air. A new life has come upon it. No particular reason for spending all its time in water; crawls out upon land; sits down upon its haunches; surveys the world. It is no longer a fish; has entered upon a higher stage of existence; has become a frog.
This work of analyzing a composition to find the leading thoughts under which the other thoughts may be grouped is in many ways a most valuable discipline.
It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize, to read intelligently and profitably.
The reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for paragraphs. Such work is an essential preparation for the reading-class.
This composition work should serve as a constant review of all that has been passed over in the text-book.
ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS AND ADVERBS.
It is often difficult to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb modifier. We offer the following explanation:—
"Mary arrived safe." As we here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving, we use safe, not safely. "My head feels bad" (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). "The sun shines bright" (is bright—quality,—as perceived by its shining).
You must determine whether you wish to tell the quality of the thing named or the manner of the action.
When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows.
Let the pupils show that the following adjectives and adverbs are used correctly:—
1. I feel sad. 2. I feel deeply. 3. I feel miserable. 4. He appeared prompt and willing. 5. He appeared promptly and willingly. 6. She looks beautiful. 7. She sings beautifully.
PAST PARTICIPLES AND PREDICATE VERBS DISTINGUISHED.
When the past tense and the past participle differ in form, they are often confounded in use; as,
I done it; I seen it.
Pupils may be required to construct short sentences, oral or written, using the Past forms found in Lesson 91 as predicates, and the Past Participle forms either as modifiers or as completing words in compound verbs.
They may be led to some such conclusion as the following:—
The Past is always an asserting, or predicate, word; the Past Participle never asserts, but is used as an adjective modifier or as the completing word of a compound verb; the Present may be used as a predicate or as an infinitive.
Exercises like the following may be copied, and repeated aloud:—
1. Lay down your pen. 2. Lie down, Rover. 3. I laid down my pen. 4. The dog then lay down. 5. I have laid down my pen. 6. The dog has lain down. 7. Set the pail down. 8. Sit down and rest. 9. I then set it down. 10. I sat down and rested. 11. I have set it down. 12. I have sat down. 13. My work was laid aside. 14. I was lying down. 15. The trap was set by the river. 16. I was sitting by the river. 17. The garment sits well. 18. The hen sits on her eggs. 19. He came in and lay down. 20. The Mediterranean lies between Europe and Africa.
Notice that we may speak of laying something or setting something, or may say that something is laid or is set; but we cannot speak of lying or sitting something, or of something being lain or sat. Set, in some of its meanings, is used without an object; as, "The sun set;" "He set out on a journey."
Lay, the present of the first verb, and lay, the past of lie, may easily be distinguished by the difference in meaning and in the time expressed.
POSSESSIVE FORMS.
Pupils may be required to copy such forms as the following:—
The sailor's story; the farmer's son; the pony's mane; the monkey's tail; a day's work; James's book; a cent's worth; a man's wages; the child's toys; the woman's hat; the sailors' stories; the farmers' sons; the ponies' manes; the monkeys' tails; three days' work; five cents' worth; two men's wages; those children's toys; women's hats.
This may be continued till the pupils are able to form some such statement as the following:—
('s) and (') are the possessive signs, (') being used when s has been added to denote more than one, ('s) in other cases.
Such expressions as the following may be copied:—
Dombey and Son's business; J. J. Little & Co.'s printing-house; William the Conqueror's reign; Houghton, Mifflin, and Company's publications.
This may be continued till the pupils learn that, when a group of words may be treated as a compound name, the possessive sign is added to the last word only.
THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT.
The treatment of the objective complement may be introduced in a review course, when the class is sufficiently mature. The following explanation may aid some teachers:—
In "It made him sad," made does not fully express the action performed upon him—not "made him," but "made sad (saddened) him." Sad helps made to express the action, and also denotes a quality which as the result of the action belongs to the person represented by the object him.
Whatever completes the predicate and belongs to the object we call an Objective Complement.
Nouns, infinitives, and participles may also be used in the same way; as,
"They made Victoria queen," "It made him weep;" "It kept him laughing."
They | made / queen | Victoria ======|========================= |
+Explanation+.—The line that separates made from queen slants toward the object complement to show that queen belongs to the object.
A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case.
The teacher may here explain such constructions as, "I proved it to be him," in which it is object complement and to be him is objective complement. Him, the attribute complement of be, is in the objective case because it, the assumed subject of be, is objective. Let the pupils compare "I proved it to be him" with "I proved that it was he;" "Whom did you suppose it to be?" with "Who did you suppose it was?" etc.
NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS.
The following uses of nouns and pronouns, not found in the preceding Lessons, may be introduced in a review course.
1. He gave John a book. 2. He bought me a book.
John and me, as here used, are generally called Indirect Objects. The "indirect object" names the one to or for whom something is done. We treat these words as phrase modifiers without the preposition. If we change the order, the preposition must be supplied; as, "He gave a book to John;" "He bought a book for me."
Nouns denoting measure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance, or direction may be used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers without the preposition; as,
1. We walked four miles an hour. 2. It weighs one pound. 3. It is worth a dollar. 4. The wall is ten feet, six inches high. 5. I went home that way.
The following diagram will illustrate both the "indirect object" and the "noun of measure:"—
They offered Caesar the crown three times.
They | offered | crown =======|==================== | \ \ \the \ \ times \ \——— \ \three \ Caesar \———
+Explanation+.—Caesar (the "indirect object") and times (denoting measure) stand in the diagram on lines representing the principal words of prepositional phrases.
SCHEMES FOR REVIEW.
These schemes will be found very helpful in a general review. The pupils should be able to reproduce them, omitting the Lesson numbers.
Scheme for the Sentence.
(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
PARTS.
+Subject+. Noun or Pronoun (6, 14, 19). Phrase (49). Clause (61).
+Predicate+. Verb (6,16).
+Complements+. Object. Noun or Pronoun (39). Phrase (49). Clause (61). Attribute. Adjective (39). Noun or Pronoun (42). Phrase. Clause (61).
+Modifiers+. Adjectives (20, 22). Adverbs (24, 27). Participles (48). Nouns and Pronouns (53). Phrases (31, 48, 49). Clauses (57, 59).
+Connectives+. Conjunctions (35, 36, 62). Pronouns (57). Adverbs (59).
+Independent Parts (36, 64)+.
+Classes+—+Meaning+.—Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, Exclamatory (63).
+Classes+—+Form+.—Simple, Complex, Compound (57, 62).
Scheme for the Noun.
(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
NOUN (14).
+Uses+. Subject (6). Object Complement (39). Attribute Complement (42). Adjective Modifier (53). Prin. word in Prep. Phrase (34). Independent (64).
+Classes+. Common (71). Proper (71).
+Modifications+. Number Singular (78, 79). Plural (78, 79).
+Gender+. Masculine (80). Feminine (80). Neuter (80).
+Person+. First (81-83). Second (81-83). Third (81-83).
+Case+. Nominative (81-85). Possessive (81-85). Objective (81-85).
Scheme for the Pronoun.
PRONOUNS.
+Uses+.—Same as those of the Noun.
+Classes+. Personal (71, 72). Relative (71, 72). Interrogative (71, 72). Adjective (71, 72).
+Modifications+.—Same as those of the Noun (78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 95).
Scheme for the Verb.
(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
VERB. +Uses+ To assert action, being, or state.—Predicate (6, 16). To assume action, being, or state. Participles (48). Infinitives (49).
+Classes+. Form. Regular (74). Irregular (74, 91). Meaning. Transitive (74), Intransitive (74).
+Modifications+. Voice. Active (89). Passive (89). Mode. Indicative (90-94). Potential (90-94). Subjunctive (90-94). Imperative (90-94). Tense. Present (90-94). Past (90-94). Future (90-94). Present Perfect (90-94). Past Perfect (90-94). Future Perfect (90-94). Number. Singular (90, 92-95). Plural (90, 92-95). Person. First (90, 92-95). Second (90, 92-95). Third (90, 92-95).
+Participles+.— Classes. Present (90-94, 96, 98). Past (90-94, 96, 98). Past Perfect (90-94, 96, 98).
+Infinitives+.— Tenses. Present (90, 92-94). Present Perfect (90, 92-94).
Scheme for the Adjective.
(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
ADJECTIVE.
+Uses+. Modifier (20, 23). Attribute Complement (39).
+Classes+. Descriptive (73). Definitive (73).
+Modification+.—Comparison. Pos. Deg. (87, 88). Comp. Deg. (87, 88). Sup. Deg. (87, 88).
Scheme for the Adverb.
ADVERB.
+Classes+. Time (75). Place (75). Degree (75). Manner (75).
+Modification+—Comparison. Pos. Deg. (87, 88). Comp. Deg. (87, 88). Sup. Deg. (87, 88).
+Schemes for the Conj., Prep., and Int+.
THE CONJUNCTION.— +Classes+. Co-ordinate (36, 76). No Modifications. Subordinate (36, 76). No Modifications.
THE PREPOSITION (34, 41).—No Classes. No Modifications.
THE INTERJECTION (36).—No Classes. No Modifications.
+Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+.—Oh! it has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away.
CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX. Sentence. Oh! Class: Int. Voice: Independent. Sub-C.: Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:
it Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. of has. Sub-C.: Per. Mode: Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Sing. Gen.: Neut. Case: Nom. Deg. of Comp.: Pred. of it.
has Class: Vb. Voice: Act. Sub-C.: Ir., Tr. Mode: Ind. Tense: Pres. Per.: 3d. Num.: Sing. Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:
a Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. of voice. Sub-C.: Def. Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: ——
voice Class: N. Voice: Obj. Com. of has. Sub-C.: Com. Mode: Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Sing. Gen.: Neut. Case: Obj. Deg. of Comp.:
for Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. of Sub-C.: Mode: has to Tense: those. Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:
those Class: Pro. Voice: Prin. word after Sub-C.: Adj. Mode: for. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: M.or F. Case: Obj. Deg. of Comp.:
who Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. of lie and Sub-C.: Rel. Mode: waste. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: M.or F. Case: Nom. Deg. of Comp.:
on Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. of lie Sub-C.: Mode: to beds. Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:
their Class: Pro. Voice: Pos. Mod. of Sub-C.: Per. Mode: beds. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: M.or F. Case: Pos. Deg. of Comp.:
sick Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. of beds. Sub-C.: Des. Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: Pos.
beds Class: N. Voice: Prin. word after Sub-C.: Com. Mode: on. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: Neut. Case: Obj. Deg. of Comp.:
lie Class: Vb. Voice: —— Pred. of who. Sub-C.: Ir., Int. Mode: Ind. Tense: Pres. Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:
and Class: Conj. Voice: Con. lie and Sub-C.: Co-or. Mode: waste. Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:
waste Class: Vb. Voice: —— Pred. of who. Sub-C.: Reg., Int.Mode: Ind. Tense: Pres. Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:
away. Class: Adv. Voice: Mod. of waste. Sub-C.: Place Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: ——
For exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on Analysis.
LIST OF CONNECTIVES.
+Remark+.—Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves, and connect the clauses.
CO-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES.
+Copulative+.—And, both…and, as well as, [Footnote: The as well as in "He, as well as I, went"; and not that in "He is as well as I am."] are conjunctions proper. Accordingly, also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, now, so, then, and therefore are conjunctive adverbs.
+Adversative+.—But and whereas are conjunctions proper. However, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, and yet are conjunctive adverbs.
+Alternative+.—Neither, nor, or, either… or, and neither…nor are conjunctions proper. Else and otherwise are conjunctive adverbs.
SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES.
Connectives of Adjective Clauses.
That, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, and whoever are relative pronouns. When, where, whereby, wherein, and why are conjunctive adverbs.
Connectives of Adverb Clauses.
Time.—After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while, and whilst are conjunctive adverbs.
Place.—Whence, where, and wherever are conjunctive adverbs.
Degree.—As, than, that, and the are conjunctive adverbs, correlative, with adjectives or adverbs.
Manner.—As is a conjunctive adverb, correlative often with an adjective or an adverb.
Real Cause.—As, because, for, since, and whereas are conjunctions proper.
Reason.—Because, for, and since are conjunctions proper.
Purpose.—In order that, lest (=that not) that, and so that are conjunctions proper.
Condition.—Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, and unless are conjunctions proper.
Concession.—Although, if (=even if), notwithstanding, though, and whether are conjunctions proper. However is a conjunctive adverb. Whatever, whichever, and whoever are relative pronouns used indefinitely.
+Connectives of Noun Clauses+.
If, lest, that, and whether are conjunctions proper. What, which, and who are pronouns introducing questions; how, when, whence, where, and why are conjunctive adverbs.
ABBREVIATIONS.
+Remarks+.—Few abbreviations are allowable in ordinary composition. They are very convenient in writing lists of articles, in scientific works, and wherever certain terms frequently occur.
Titles prefixed to proper names are generally abbreviated, except in addressing an officer of high rank. Titles that immediately follow names are almost always abbreviated.
Names of women are not generally abbreviated except by using an initial for one of two Christian names.
Abbreviations that shorten only by one letter are unnecessary; as, Jul. for "July," Jno. for "John," da. for "day," etc.
1_st_, 2_d_, 3_d_, 4_th_, etc., are not followed by the period. They are not treated as abbreviations.
@, At. +A. B.+ or +B. A.+ (Artium Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Arts. +Acct., acct.+, or +a/c+, Account. +A. D.+ (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord. +Adjt.+, Adjutant. +Aet.+ or +aet.+ (aetatis), Of age, aged. +Ala.+, Alabama. +Alex.+, Alexander. +A. M.+ or +M. A.+ (Artium Magister), Master of Arts. +A. M.+ (ante meridiem), Before noon. +Amt.+, Amount. +And.+, Andrew. +Anon.+, Anonymous. +Ans.+, Answer. +Anth.+, Anthony. +Apr.+, April. +Arch.+, Archibald. +Ark.+, Arkansas. +Arizona+ or +Ariz.+, Arizona Territory. +Atty.+, Attorney. +Atty.-Gen.+, Attorney-General. +Aug.+, August; Augustus. +Av.+ or +Ave.+, Avenue. +Avoir.+, Avoirdupois. +Bart.+, Baronet. +bbl.+, Barrels. +B. C.+, Before Christ. +Benj.+, Benjamin. +Brig.-Gen.+, Brigadier-General. +B. S.+, Bachelor of Science. +bu.+, Bushels. +c+ or +ct.+, Cents. +Cal.+, California. +Cap.+, Capital. +Caps.+, Capitals. +Capt.+, Captain. +C. E.+, Civil Engineer. +cf.+ (confer), Compare. +Chas.+, Charles. +Chron.+, Chronicles. +Co.+, Company; County. +c/o+, In care of. +C. O. D.+, Collect on delivery. +Col.+, Colonel; Colossians. +Coll.+, College; Collector. +Conn.+, Connecticut. +Colo+, or +Col.+, Colorado. +Cr.+, Credit; Creditor. +cub. ft.+, Cubic feet. +cub. in.+, Cubic inches. +cwt.+, Hundred-weight. +d.+, Days; Pence. +Danl.+ or +Dan.+, Daniel. +D. C.+, District of Columbia. +D. C. L.+, Doctor of Civil Law. +D. D.+ (Divinitatis Doctor), Doctor of Divinity. +D. D. S.+, Doctor of Dental Surgery. +Dec.+, December. +Del.+, Delaware. +Deut.+, Deuteronomy. +D. G.+ (Dei gratia), By the grace of God. +Dist.-Atty.+, District-Attorney. +D. M.+, Doctor of Music. +do.+ (ditto), The same. +doz.+, Dozen. +Dr.+, Doctor; Debtor. +D. V.+ (Deo volente), God willing. +E.+, East. +Eben.+, Ebenezer. +Eccl.+, Ecclesiastes. +Ed.+, Edition; Editor. +Edm.+, Edmund. +Edw.+, Edward. +e. g.+ (exempli gratia), For example. +E. N. E.+, East-northeast. +Eng.+, English; England. +Eph.+, Ephesians; Ephraim. +E. S. E.+, East-southeast. +Esq.+, Esquire. +et al.+ (et alibi), And elsewhere. +et al.+ (et alii), And others. +et seq.+ (et sequeniia), And following. +etc.+ or +&c.+ (et caetera), And others; And so forth. +Ex.+, Example; Exodus. +Ez.+, Ezra. +Ezek.+, Ezekiel. +Fahr.+ or +F.+, Fahrenheit (thermometer). +Feb.+, February. +Fla.+, Florida. +Fr.+, French; France. +Fran.+, Francis. +Fred.+, Frederic. +Fri.+, Friday. +ft.+, Feet. +Ft.+, Fort. +fur.+, Furlong. +Ga.+, Georgia. +Gal.+, Galatians. +gal.+, Gallons. +Gen.+, General; Genesis. +Geo.+, George. +Gov.+, Governor. +gr.+, Grains. +h.+, Hours. +Hab.+, Habakkuk. +Hag.+, Haggai. +H. B. M.+, His (or Her) Britannic Majesty. +hdkf.+, Handkerchief. +Heb.+, Hebrews. +H. H.+, His Holiness (the Pope). +hhd.+, Hogsheads. +H. M.+, His (or Her) Majesty. +Hon.+, Honorable. +Hos.+, Hosea. +H. R. H.+, His (or Her) Royal Highness. +ib.+ or +ibid+, (ibidem), In the same place. +id.+ (idem), The same. +Idaho+, Idaho. +i.e.+ (id est), That is. +I. H. S.+ (Jesus hominum Salvator), Jesus, the Savior of Men. +Ill.+, Illinois. +in.+, Inches. +incog.+ (i_ncognito_), Unknown. +Ind.+, Indiana. +Ind. T.+, Indian Territory. +inst.+, Instant, the present month. +Iowa+ or +Io.+, Iowa. +I. O. O. F.+, Independent Order of Odd Fellows. +Isa.+, Isaiah. +Jac.+, Jacob. +Jan.+, January. +Jas.+, James. +Jer.+, Jeremiah. +Jona.+, Jonathan. +Jos.+, Joseph. +Josh.+, Joshua. +Jr.+ or +Jun.+, Junior. +Judg.+, Judges. +Kans.+ or +Kan.+, Kansas. +Ky.+, Kentucky. +l.+, Line; ll., Lines. +l.+ or +lb.+, Pounds sterling. +La.+, Louisiana. +Lam.+, Lamentations. +L.+, Latin. +lb.+ or lb-. (libra or librae), Pound or pounds in weight. +l.c.+, Lower case (small letter). +Lev.+, Leviticus. +L. I.+, Long Island. +Lieut.+, Lieutenant. +LL. B.+(Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws. +LL. D.+ (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws. +M.+ or +Mons.+, Monsieur. +M.+ (meridies), Noon. +m.+, Miles; Minutes. +Mad.+, Madam. +Mme.+, Madame. +Maj.+, Major. +Mal.+, Malachi. +Mar.+, March. +Mass.+, Massachusetts. +Matt.+, Matthew. +M. C.+, Member of Congress. +M. D.+ (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine. +Md.+, Maryland. +mdse.+, Merchandise. +Me.+, Maine. +Mem.+, Memorandum; Memoranda. +Messrs.+, Messieurs. +Mic.+, Micah. +Mgr.+, Monseigneur. +Mich.+, Michigan; Michael. +Minn.+, Minnesota. +Miss.+, Mississippi. +Mlle.+, Mademoiselle. +Mmes.+, Mesdames. +Mo.+, Missouri. +mo.+, Months. +Mon.+, Monday. +M. P.+, Member of Parliament. +Mont.+, Montana. +Mr.+, Mister. +Mrs.+, Mistress (pronounced Missis). +MS.+, Manuscript. +MSS.+, Manuscripts. +Mt.+, Mountain. +N.+, North. +N. A.+, North America. +Nath.+, Nathaniel. +N. B.+ (nota bene), Mark well. +N. C.+, North Carolina. +N. Dak.+, North Dakota. +N. E.+, New England. +N. E.+, Northeast. +Nebr.+ or +Neb.+, Nebraska. +Neh.+, Nehemiah. +Nev.+, Nevada. +N. H.+, New Hampshire. +N. J.+, New Jersey. +N. Mex.+ or +N. M.+, New Mexico. +N. N. E.+, North-northeast. +N. N. W.+, North-northwest. +N. O.+, New Orleans. +No.+ (numero), Number, +Nov.+, November. +N. W.+, Northwest +N. Y.+, New York. +Obad.+, Obadiah. +Oct.+, October. +Ohio+ or +O.+, Ohio. +Oreg.+ or +Or.+, Oregon. +Oxon.+ (Oxonia), Oxford, +oz.+, Ounces. +p.+, Page, +pp.+, Pages. +Pa.+ or +Penn.+, Pennsylvania. +Payt.+ or +payt.+, Payment. +per cent+, or +per ct.+ (per centum) or %, By the hundred. +Ph. D.+ (Philosophiae Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy. +Phil.+, Philip; Philippians. +Phila.+, Philadelphia. +pk.+, Pecks. +P. M.+, Postmaster. +P. M.+ or +p. m.+ (post meridiem), Afternoon. +P. O.+, Post-Office. +Pres.+, President. +Prof.+, Professor. +Pro tem.+ (pro tempore), For the time being. +Prov.+, Proverbs. +prox.+ (proximo), The next month. +P. S.+, Postscript. +Ps.+, Psalms. +pt.+, Pints. +pwt.+, Pennyweights. +qt.+, Quarts. +q. v.+ (quod vide), Which see. +Qy.+, Query. +rd.+, Rods. +Recd.+, Received. +Rev.+, Reverend; Revelation. +R. I.+, Rhode Island. +Robt.+, Robert. +Rom.+, Romans (Book of); Roman letters. +R. R.+, Railroad. +R. S. V. P.+ (Repondez s'il vous plait), Answer, if you please. +Rt. Hon.+, Right Honorable. +Rt. Rev.+, Right Reverend. +S.+, South. +s.+, Shillings. +S. A.+, South America. +Saml.+ or +Sam.+, Samuel. +Sat.+, Saturday. +S. C.+, South Carolina. +S. Dak.+, South Dakota. +S. E.+, Southeast. +Sec.+, Secretary. +sec.+, Seconds. +Sep.+ or +Sept.+, September. +Sol.+, Solomon. +sq. ft.+, Square feet. +sq. in.+, Square inches. +sq. m.+, Square miles. +S. S. E.+, South-southeast. +S. S. W.+, South-southwest. +St.+, Street; Saint. +S. T. D.+ (Sacrae Theologiae Doctor), Doctor of Divinity. +Sun.+, Sunday. +Supt.+, Superintendent. +S. W.+, Southwest. +T.+, Tons; Tuns. +Tenn.+, Tennessee. +Tex.+, Texas. +Theo.+, Theodore. +Theoph.+, Theophilus. +Thess.+, Thessalonians, +Thos.+, Thomas. +Thurs.+, Thursday. +Tim.+, Timothy. +tr.+, Transpose. +Treas.+, Treasurer. +Tues.+, Tuesday. +ult.+ (ultimo), Last—last month. +U. S.+ or +U. S. A.+, United States of America; United States Army. +U. S. M.+, United States Mail. +U. S. N.+, United States Navy. +Utah+ or +U. Ter.+, Utah Territory. +Va.+, Virginia. +Vice-Pres.+, Vice-President. +viz.+ (videlicet), To wit, namely. +vol.+, Volume. +vs.+ (versus), Against. +Vt.+, Vermont. +W.+, West. +Wash.+, Washington. +Wed.+, Wednesday. +Wis.+, Wisconsin. +wk.+, Weeks. +Wm.+, William. +W. N. W.+, West-northwest. +W. S. W.+, West-southwest. +W. Va.+, West Virginia. +Wyo.+, Wyoming. +Xmas.+, Christmas. +yd.+, Yards. +y.+ or +yr.+, Years. +Zech.+, Zechariah. +& Co.+, And Company.
SUPPLEMENT.
+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.
SELECTION FROM DARWIN.
Morren says that angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house; so that by looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. If the ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows be suddenly removed, the end of the worm's body may very often be seen rapidly retreating.
This habit of lying near the surface leads to their destruction to an immense extent. Every morning, during certain seasons of the year, the thrushes and blackbirds on all the lawns throughout the country draw out of their holes an astonishing number of worms; and this they could not do unless they lay close to the surface.
It is not probable that worms behave in this manner for the sake of breathing fresh air, for they can live for a long time under water. I believe that they lie near the surface for the sake of warmth, especially in the morning; and we shall hereafter find that they often coat the mouths of their burrows with leaves, apparently to prevent their bodies from coming into close contact with the cold, damp earth.
+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.—We will break up Mr. Darwin's first group of sentences into single sentences or single statements, each having but one predicate verb.
1. Angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. 2. Morren says this. 3. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house. 4. By looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. 5. The ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows may suddenly be removed. 6. The end of the worm's body may then very often be seen rapidly retreating.
Find the two chief words (subject and predicate) in 1. What does often do? What does the group of words for hours do? The group almost motionless describes what things? The group close beneath the mouths of their burrows, used like a single adverb, tells what? Find the two chief words in 2. This helps out the meaning of says, but it is not an adverb. This is here a pronoun standing for the thing said. What whole sentence does this take the place of? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 3. What noun follows this verb to tell what Mr. Darwin noticed? What does occasionally do? What does same go with? What group of eight words tells in what way Mr. Darwin noticed this fact? Find the unmodified subject and predicate in 4. What does the second their go with? What does by looking down into their burrows tell? What does just do? In 5, put what before may be removed, and find two words either of which may be used as subject. What is the office of the, ejected, and the group over the burrows? What does suddenly do? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 6. Retreating helps out the meaning of the predicate and at the same time modifies the subject. Notice that the end rapidly retreating is not a sentence, nor is worms kept in pots, in 3. Retreating and kept here express action, but they are not predicates; they do not assert. You learned in Lesson 16 that certain forms of the verb do not assert. Of the worm's body modifies what? Then and very often do what?
If you will compare these numbered sentences with Mr. Darwin's, you will see how two or more sentences are put together to make one longer sentence. You see Mr. Darwin puts our sentence 1 after says to tell what Morren says. What word here helps to bring two sentences together? Change this sentence about so as to make says Morren come last. See how many other changes you can make in the arrangement of the words and groups of words in this sentence. What two words are used to join 3 and 4 together? Notice that these sentences are not joined so closely as 1 and 2, as is shown by the semi-colon. Notice that if has much to do in joining 5 and 6. These are more closely joined than 3 and 4, but not so closely as 1 and 2. How is this shown by the punctuation? Put 5 and 6 together and change their order. Find, if you can, still another arrangement.
+To the Teacher+.—It is very important that pupils should learn to see words in groups and to note their offices. If difficulties and technicalities be avoided, such exercises as we suggest above may be begun very early. They will lead to an intelligent observation of language and will prepare the way for the more formal lessons of the text-book.
If time can be had, such exercises may profitably be continued through the second and third paragraphs of the selection above.
We have said elsewhere that the sentence exercises on this selection from Darwin may follow Lesson 30, but the teacher must determine.
+The Paragraph+.—If we write about only one thing, or one point, our sentences will be closely related to each other. If we write on two or more points, there will be two or more sets of sentences—the sentences of each set closely related to one another, but the sets themselves not so closely related. A group of sentences expressing what we have to say on a single point, or division, of our subject is called a +paragraph+. How many paragraphs do you find in the selection above? How are they separated on the page?
Let us examine this selection more carefully to find whether the sentences of each group are all on a single point and closely related, and whether the groups themselves are related. Do the sentences of the first paragraph all help to tell of a certain habit of angleworms? Do the sentences of the second paragraph tell what results from this habit? Do the sentences of the third paragraph tell what is thought to be the cause of this habit? If you can say yes to these questions, the sentences in each paragraph must be closely related. Are a habit, a result of it, and a cause of it related in thought, or meaning? If so, the paragraphs are related.
You must now see that paragraphing helps both the reader and the writer, and that we should master it.
+The Style+.—We shall not here say much about what we may call the style of the author—his way of putting his thought, or manner of expressing it. But this you will notice: his words are few, plain, and simple; the arrangement of them is easy; and so what is said is said clearly. You are nowhere in doubt about his meaning unless it be in the second paragraph. It may puzzle you to see what their, they, and they in the second sentence of this paragraph stand for. Let an astonishing number of worms and out of their holes change places, and substitute birds and worms for they and they, and see whether the meaning would be clearer. Clearness is worth all it costs. You cannot take too much pains to be understood.
+First-hand Knowledge+.—As you know, we get our knowledge in two ways. We get it by seeing and by thinking about what we see; and we get it by listening to other people and reading what they have written. What we get by seeing, by observation, is first-hand knowledge; what we get from others is second-hand knowledge. Both kinds are useful; we cannot have too much of either. But the kind that it does us most good to get and is worth most to us when got is first-hand knowledge. This especially is the kind which you should make your compositions of. In the first two paragraphs of the selection above, Darwin is telling what he saw, and in the third he is explaining what he saw. That is why what he says is so fresh and interesting.
And just one thing more. If such a man as Charles Darwin thought it worth his while to spend much time in studying and experimenting upon angleworms and then to write a large book about them, surely you need not think anything in nature beneath your notice.
ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
Tell in two or three short paragraphs what you have observed of some worm, insect, or other creature, and what you think about it.
+To the Teacher+.—We suggest that what is said above be read by the pupils and discussed in the class, and that the substance of it be reproduced in the pupils' own language. Such reproduction will serve as a lesson in oral composition.
It may be profitable for the pupils to reproduce the selection from Darwin.
+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.
SELECTION FROM HABBERTON—"HELEN'S BABIES."
The whistles completed, I was marched with music to the place where the "Jacks" grew. It was just such a place as boys delight in—low, damp, and boggy, with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses.
1. The children knew by sight the plant that bore the "Jacks," and every discovery was announced by a piercing shriek of delight. 2. At first I looked hurriedly toward the brook as each yell clove the air; but, as I became accustomed to it, my attention was diverted by some exquisite ferns. 3. Suddenly, however, a succession of shrieks announced that something was wrong, and across a large fern I saw a small face in a great deal of agony. 4. Budge was hurrying to the relief of his brother, and was soon as deeply imbedded as Toddie was in the rich, black mud at the bottom of the brook. 5. I dashed to the rescue, stood astride the brook, and offered a hand to each boy, when a treacherous tuft of grass gave way, and, with a glorious splash, I went in myself.
This accident turned Toddie's sorrow to laughter, but I can't say I made light of my misfortune on that account. To fall into clear water is not pleasant, even when one is trout-fishing; but to be clad in white trousers and suddenly drop nearly knee-deep into the lap of mother earth is quite a different thing.
I hastily picked up the children and threw them upon the bank, and then strode out, and tried to shake myself, as I have seen a Newfoundland dog do. The shake was not a success—it caused my trouser's legs to flap dismally about my ankles, and sent the streams of treacherous ooze trickling down into my shoes. My hat, of drab felt, had fallen off by the brookside, and been plentifully spattered as I got out.
+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.—We will put the first paragraph above into single sentences.
1. The whistles completed, we were marched with music to the place. 2. The "Jacks" grew in this place. 3. It was a place low, damp, and boggy, with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses. 4. Boys delight in such a place.
Find the subject noun (or pronoun) and the predicate verb in each of the four sentences above. Does the whistles completed make complete sense? You learned in Lesson 16 that some forms of the verb do not assert—cannot be predicates. Does brook hidden, in 3, contain a predicate? What can you say of hidden? Find a noun in 3 used to complete the predicate and make the meaning of the subject plainer. What group of adjectives modifies place? Tell why these three adjectives are separated by commas. What long phrase describes place?
Find the first verb in the second paragraph of the selection. What is the object complement of this verb? That bore the "Jacks" does what? The pronoun that stands for plant. The plant bore the "Jacks," standing by itself, is a complete sentence; but by using that for plant the whole expression is made to do the work of an adjective. What conjunction joins on another expression that by itself would make a complete sentence? What are the subject and the predicate of this added sentence? By a piercing shriek of delight does what? Of what use are the phrases at first and toward the brook in sentence 2? What group of words is joined to looked to tell on what occasion or how often? Find in this group a subject, a predicate, and an object complement. What connects this group to looked? What two sentences does but here bring together? Does the semicolon show that this connection is close? Point out what you think to be the leading subject and the leading verb after but. By some exquisite ferns is joined to what? What group of words goes with was diverted to tell when? Find in this group a subject, a predicate, and an attribute complement. Point out in the first part of 3 the leading subject and its verb. What does suddenly go with? What does of shrieks modify? However is loosely thrown in to carry the attention back to what goes before. Notice the commas. Answer the question made by putting what after announced. In this group of words used as object complement can you find a subject, a predicate, and a complement? What two sentences does and here bring together? Point out the subject, the predicate, and the complement in the second of these. Across a large fern is joined like an adverb to what? In a great deal of agony modifies what? Find a compound predicate in 4. What phrase is joined to was imbedded to tell where? The group of words as deeply as Toddie was (imbedded) is joined to what? Find in 5 a compound predicate made up of three verbs, one of which has an object complement.
+To the Teacher+.—See suggestions with the preceding selection. If our exercises on the second paragraph above are found too hard, the compound and complex sentences may be broken up into single statements.
We have indicated elsewhere that this sentence work may follow Lesson 40.
+The Narrative+.—This selection from "Helen's Babies" is a story and therefore a narrative. But there are some descriptive touches in it. All stories must have such touches. Perhaps it is not always essential to distinguish between narration and description, but it is worth your while to do it occasionally. Try to point out the descriptive parts in these paragraphs. You certainly can find a descriptive sentence in the first paragraph, and descriptive words, phrases, and clauses throughout the selection. What help to the narrative do these descriptive touches give?
+The Paragraphs+.—What have you learned about the sentences that make up one paragraph? Are the paragraphs more, or less, closely related than the sentences of each paragraph? Why? Examine these paragraphs and see whether any sentences can be changed from one paragraph to another. If you think they can, give your reason. Is the order of these paragraphs the right one? Can the order anywhere be changed without throwing the story out of joint? Why?
+The General Topic and the Sub-topics+.—We shall find that every composition has its general subject and that each paragraph in the composition bus its own particular subject. Let us call the subject of the whole composition the general topic. Sub means under, and so let us call the point which each paragraph develops a sub-topic. In the story above we may find some such outline as the following:—
AN EXCURSION IN SEARCH OF "JACKS." 1. The Place where Jacks Grow. 2. The Mishap to the Excursionists. 3. The Uncle Takes his Seriously. 4. His Attempt at Repairs.
Do you think that such a framework helps a writer to tell his story? Do you not think that each sub-topic must suggest some thoughts that the general topic alone would not suggest? If you keep clearly before you the sub-topic of your paragraph, what effect do you think it will have on the thoughts and the sentences of that paragraph? With a good framework clearly before you, must not your story move along in an orderly way from a beginning to an end? Have you ever heard stories badly told? If so, what were the faults?
ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
Have you not had some experience that you can work up into a good story? If you have, tell the story upon paper, making use of the instruction we have given you in our talk above.
+To the Teacher+.—Perhaps a reproduction of the story above may be profitable.
EXERCISES ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH.
SELECTION FROM GEORGE ELIOT.
And this is Dovecote Mill. I must stand a minute or two here on the bridge and look at it, though the clouds are threatening and it is far on in the afternoon. Even in this leafless time of departing February, it is pleasant to look at it. Perhaps the chill, damp season adds a charm to the trimly-kept building, as old as the elms and chestnuts that shelter it from the northern blast.
The stream is brimful now, and half drowns the grassy fringe in front of the house. As I look at the stream, the vivid grass, the delicate, bright green softening the outline of the great trunks and branches that gleam from under the bare purple boughs, I am in love with moistness, and envy the white ducks that are dipping their heads far into the water, unmindful of the awkward appearance in the drier world above.
1. And now there is the huge covered wagon, coming home with sacks of grain. 2. That honest wagoner is thinking of his dinner, which is getting sadly dry in the oven at this late hour; but he will not touch it till he has fed his horses—the strong, submissive beasts, who, I fancy, are looking mild reproach at him from between their blinkers, that he should crack his whip at them in that awful manner, as if they needed such a hint! 3. See how they stretch their shoulders up the slope toward the bridge, with all the more energy because they are so near home. 4. Look at their grand, shaggy feet, that seem to grasp the firm earth, at the patient strength of their necks bowed under the heavy collar, at the mighty muscles of their struggling haunches. 5. I should like to see them, with their moist necks freed from the harness, dipping their eager nostrils into the pond.
+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.—Notice that in sentence 1, third paragraph, the subject is placed after the predicate. Tell what now and there do. Coming home with sacks of grain does what? Does coming express action? Does it assert action? What is it? What does home do? Put its before home and then read the whole phrase. What other change do you find necessary? A noun is sometimes used alone to do the work of an adverb phrase, the preposition being omitted. What is the office of minute in the second sentence of the first paragraph? What preposition could be put in? In 2, third paragraph, the pronoun which stands for dinner. Read the sentence, using the noun instead of the pronoun. Have you now two sentences, or one? You see that which not only stands for dinner, but it joins on a sentence so as to make it describe the dinner. What does till he has fed his horses do? Omitting till, would this group of words be a sentence? What, then, joins this group, and makes it do the work of an adverb? Notice the dash after horses. The writer here breaks off rather suddenly and begins again, using beasts instead of horses. To beasts are added many descriptive words. You will learn that this noun beasts added to the noun horses is called an explanatory modifier. Notice that I fancy is thrown in loosely or independently and is set off by commas. All the other words beginning with who and ending with hint are joined by who to beasts. Notice that the writer makes these beasts think like persons, and so uses who instead of which or that. Do we ordinarily speak of looking anything? In who are looking reproach, what is the object complement of are looking? What long group of words made up of two sentences tells why the beasts are looking reproach? Read separately the main divisions of 2. What conjunction connects these? Is one of these divisions itself divided into parts by commas? Should, then, some mark of wider separation be put between the main divisions of 2? To build so long a sentence as 2 is venturesome. We advise young writers not to make such attempts. It is hard to write very long sentences and keep the meaning clear. In 3 the subject of see is you, which is generally omitted in a command. You are here told to see what? Break this long object complement up into two sentences. What do the horses stretch? Where do they stretch their shoulders? How do they stretch? Why do they stretch with more energy? What is the subject of look in 4? The phrase beginning with at and ending with earth does what? Find two other long phrases introduced by at and tell what they do. That seem to grasp the firm earth goes with what? Put the noun feet in place of the pronoun that and make a separate sentence of this group. What word, then, makes an adjective modifier of this sentence and joins it to feet? Does to grasp assert action? What do you call it? It is here used as attribute complement. Bowed under the heavy collar describes what? Does bowed assert action? What do you call it?
+To the Teacher+.—If time permits, we believe that such exercises as the above may profitably be continued. This sentence work may perhaps best follow Lesson 50. See suggestions with preceding exercises.
+Descriptive Writing+.—This extract from the novelist who called herself "George Eliot" we have slightly changed for our purpose. It is purely +descriptive+. It is a painting in words—a vivid picture of a very pretty scene. How grateful we are to those who can, as it were, turn a page of a book into canvas, and paint on it a rich verbal picture that delights us every time we read it or recall it! How many such pictures there are in our libraries! And how little they cost us when compared with those that we buy and hang upon our walls!
+Some Features of a Good Description+.—Does this author mention many features of the mill, of the stream, and of the horses pulling their load over the bridge? Do those that she does mention suggest to you everything else? Name some of the things suggested to you but not mentioned in this description. Does not some of the charm of a description lie in the reader's having something left him to supply? If the author had given you every little detail of the mill, the stream, and the laboring horses, would not the description have been dull and tiresome? What things that the author imagined but did not really see are mentioned in the third paragraph? Do these touches of fancy or imagination help the picture? Do they show that the author was in love with her work? and do they therefore stimulate your fancy or imagination?
+The Framework+.—In making a framework for this description would you take for the general topic "The Scene from the Bridge" or "Things Seen from a Bridge"? or would you prefer some other wording of it? Now write out a framework, placing the sub-topics under the general topic as you have been taught.
ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
Describe some scene that you greatly enjoy, or draw your picture from imagination. Make a framework and try to profit by all that we have said.
EXERCISES ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH.
SELECTION FROM THE BROTHERS GRIMM.
Once upon a time there was a very old man, whose eyes were dim, whose ears were dull, and whose knees trembled. When he sat at table, he could scarcely hold his spoon; and often he spilled his food over the tablecloth and sometimes down his clothes.
His son and daughter-in-law were much vexed about this, and at last they made the old man sit behind the oven in a corner, and gave him his food in an earthen dish, and not enough of it either; so that the poor man grew sad, and his eyes were wet with tears. Once his hand trembled so much that he could not hold the dish, and it fell upon the ground and broke all in pieces, so that the young wife scolded him; but he made no reply and only sighed. Then they brought him a wooden dish, and out of that he had to feed.
One day, as he was sitting in his usual place, he saw his little grandson, four years old, fitting together some pieces of wood. "What are you making?" asked the old man.
"I am making a wooden trough," replied the child, "for father and mother to feed out of when I grow big."
At these words the father looked at his wife for a moment, and presently they began to cry. Henceforth they let the old grandfather sit at the table with them, and they did not even say anything if he spilled a little food upon the cloth.
+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.—What is the order of subject and predicate in the first sentence of this selection? The word there does not tell where; it is put before was to let the subject follow. There is frequently so used and is then called an independent adverb. Find in the first sentence three adjective clauses. What connects each to man? What other office has this connective? How are these adjective clauses connected with one another? What is the office of the dependent clause in the next sentence? If this clause were placed after its principal clause, would the comma be needed? Are the clauses separated by the semicolon as closely connected as those divided by the comma?
After made and some other words the to before the infinitive is omitted. Find such an instance in the first sentence of the second paragraph. In this same sentence change gave him his food, making him come last. You have learned that a noun or a pronoun may be used without a preposition to do the work of an adverb phrase. What does one day do in the third paragraph? Is a preposition needed before day? In the same sentence years is used adverbially to modify the adjective old. It would be hard to find a preposition to put before years. We might say "old to the extent of four years," but four years answers for the whole phrase. In this same paragraph what words are quoted exactly as the old man uttered them? Describe the quotation marks. Notice that the next quotation is broken by the words replied the child, and so each part of the quotation is separately inclosed within quotation marks.
+To the Teacher+.—We have here touched a few features of the sentences above. The exercises given with the preceding selections will suggest a fuller examination of the phrases and clauses.
+Suggestions from this Narrative+.—We see that this beautiful story has a purpose. Its purpose is to teach us kindness to our parents. It is well planned. Every sentence and every paragraph is adapted to the end in view. No useless item or circumstance is admitted. The story stops when the end is reached. Anything added to the fifth paragraph would spoil the story. We certainly can learn much from such a model.
+Paragraphs+.—Does every sentence in the first paragraph aid in picturing the helplessness of the old grandfather? Is the picture complete? Does the second paragraph strongly impress us with the unkindness of the son and daughter-in-law, who ought to have been moved to pity by the old man's condition? Does it contain an unnecessary sentence? In telling how the grandchild unconsciously taught a lesson, a dialogue is introduced, and so what really belongs to one sub-topic is put in the form of two paragraphs. It is customary to make a separate paragraph of each single speech in a dialogue. Read the last paragraph carefully and see whether one could wish to know anything more about the effect of the lesson taught by the child.
Make a framework for this story.
ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
Make up a short story from your own experience, or from your imagination, and try to profit by the suggestions above. Prepare a framework at the beginning.
+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.
SELECTION FROM BEECHER.
Overwork almost always ends in weakening the digestive organs. There are those who overtax their minds through months and years, forgetful that there is a close connection between overwork and dyspepsia. Everyone should remember that there is a point beyond which he cannot urge his brain without harm to his stomach; and that, when he loses his stomach, he loses the very citadel of health. The whole body is renewed from the blood, and the blood is made from the food taken into the stomach. The power of the blood to renew bone and brain and muscle depends upon a good digestion.
Too little sleep is fatal to health. Perhaps you have to work hard all day; but that is no reason why you should resolve, "If I cannot have pleasure by day, I will have it at night." You are taking the very substance of your body when you burn the lamp of pleasure till one or two o'clock in the morning. God has made sleep to be a sponge with which to rub out fatigue. A man's roots are planted in night, as a tree's are planted in soil, and out of it he should come, at waking, with fresh growth and bloom. As a rule, you should take eight hours of the twenty-four, for sleep.
+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.—In the exercises under the selection from the Brothers Grimm what did you learn about there as used twice in the second sentence above? What does those mean? What long adjective clause is joined to those by who? Does this clause read so closely as not to need a comma before who? Does forgetful describe the persons represented by who? Why is a comma used before forgetful? You learned in a preceding exercise that a noun may do the work of an adverb phrase without the help of a preposition. A noun clause may do the same. The adjective forgetful is modified by the noun clause that … dyspepsia. If we say forgetful of the fact, we see that the noun clause means the same as fact and has the same office. What two long noun clauses aroused to complete should remember? What conjunction introduces each of these clauses? What conjunction joins them together? What mark of punctuation between? If one of these noun clauses were not itself divided into clauses by the comma, would the semicolon be needed? The clause beyond … stomach goes with what word? When … stomach modifies what verb? Classify the sentences of this paragraph as simple, complex, or compound.
+To the Teacher+.—We have here treated informally some difficult points. Perhaps these may be better understood when the book is reviewed.
+The Various Objects Writers Have+.—From your study of the preceding selections you learn that a writer may have any one of several objects in writing. He may wish simply to instruct the reader, as does Darwin in what he says of earthworms. He may wish merely to amuse the reader, as does Mr. Habberton in our extract from "Helen's Babies." He may wish only to put before them a picture which, like that of George Eliot's, shall afford delight. Or he may wish to get hold of what we call our wills and lead us to do something, perform some duty. This is what the story from the Brothers Grimm aims at. And you saw how it does this—by working on our feelings. There are at least these four objects that a writer may propose to himself. Which of these four objects has Mr. Beecher in the paragraphs we quote? Does he instruct? Does he try to get us to do something? Would it help you to have clearly before you from the beginning the object you are seeking to accomplish?
+Figurative Expressions+.—In these paragraphs Mr. Beecher calls a man's stomach the citadel of health, and sleep a sponge to rub out fatigue with, and says a man's roots are planted in night. He does not use these words citadel, sponge, and roots in their first or common meaning. He uses them in what we call a +figurative+ sense. He means to say that a man's stomach is to him what a fortress is to soldiers, a source of strength; that in sleep fatigue disappears as do figures on a slate or blackboard when a wet sponge is drawn across them; and that a man gets out of night what a tree's roots draw out of the soil, nourishment and vigor. Such figurative uses of words give strength and beauty to style.
ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
In the paragraphs quoted above you were told of the effects on health of overwork and of insufficient sleep. Perhaps you can write of exercise, of proper food, of clothes, or of some other things on which health may depend.
+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.
ADAPTED FROM DR. JOHN BROWN—"RAB AND HIS FRIENDS."
Rab belonged to a lost tribe—there are no such dogs now. He was old and gray and brindled; and his hair short, hard, and close, like a lion's. He was as big as a Highland bull, and his body was thickset. He must have weighed ninety pounds at least.
His large, blunt head was scarred with the record of old wounds, a series of battlefields all over it. His muzzle was as black as night, his mouth blacker than any night, and a tooth or two, all he had, gleamed out of his jaws of darkness. One eye was out, one ear cropped close. The remaining eye had the power of two; and above it, and in constant communication with it, was a tattered rag of an ear that was for ever unfurling itself, like an old flag.
And then that bud of a tail, about an inch long, if it could in any sense be said to be long, being as broad as it was long! The mobility of it, its expressive twinklings and winkings, and the intercommunications between the eye, the ear, and it, were of the oddest and swiftest.
Rab had the dignity and simplicity of great size. Having fought his way all along the road to absolute supremacy, he was as mighty in his own line as Julius Caesar or the Duke of Wellington in his, and he had the gravity of all great fighters.
+To the Teacher+.—We suggest exercises on the uses of words similar to those preceding. Before attempting this it may be well to let the pupils go over these condensed expressions and supply the words necessary to the analysis. For instance, in the first paragraph hair may be followed by was and Highland bull by is big. In the next paragraph wounds may be followed by marking, as night by is black, etc. In the third paragraph and then may be followed by there was, etc. The pupils will determine whether supplying these words makes the description stronger or weaker.
Pupils may note especially the offices of nouns, verbs, and adjectives. This selection abounds in descriptive nouns and verbs that are particularly well chosen. Let the pupils point out such.
+The Description+.—How does the description above impress you? Are only characteristic parts and features selected? Are these few features enough to give you a distinct and vivid picture of Rab? What comparisons do you find? How do they help? Pick out some words or phrases that seem to you very expressive. Find some words that are used, not in their first or common sense, but in a figurative sense. How do they help?
+Paragraphs+.—Which paragraph puts before you the dog as a whole? Where must this paragraph naturally stand? Why? Which paragraph describes Rab's character? What does each of the other paragraphs describe? If you think the arrangement of paragraphs above is the best, tell why.
Make a framework for this description.
ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
Write a description of some animal which you have closely observed and in which you are interested. Be careful to pick out leading or characteristic features that will bring others into the reader's imagination. First prepare a framework.