ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
George Hayward translation
VOLUME FIRST.
PAGE.
Preface by the Translator. 5
Preface by the Author. ib.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Of Animate and Inanimate Beings.—Of their Laws.—Of the Sciences which treat of their Phenomena. 9
I. General Remarks upon the Physiological and Physical Sciences.
The differences between these sciences are derived from the properties which preside over the phenomena.—The necessity of always connecting the second with the first.—Periods at which this progress commenced in the physical sciences. False applications made to the physiological sciences.—The necessity of following in these the same course as in the others. 9
II. Of the Vital Properties, and their influence upon the phenomena of the Physiological and Physical Sciences.
Vital properties considered in the series of living beings.—Of those which animate plants.—Consequences in regard to their diseases.—Of those which belong to animals.—Consequences in regard to their diseases.—Examination of each vital property under the relation of the diseases over which it presides.—Necessity of referring to these properties the action of medicines.—Uncertainty of the Materia Medica.—Each vital property has a particular class of medicines which act upon it.—Proofs.—Inconveniences of describing morbid phenomena and those of medicines in too general a manner.—Consequences of the preceding remarks. 13
III. Characters of the Vital Properties, compared with the characters of the Physical Properties.
Extreme variableness of the first, invariableness of the second.—Consequences of this principle as it regards the phenomena.—There can only be diseases where there are vital properties.—Why.—The progress of the physiological and physical sciences wholly different in this respect.—Differences between animate and inanimate solids and fluids.—The vital properties become exhausted, the physical do not.—Consequences.—The latter are inherent in matter, the others are not.—General remarks upon the enumeration of the differences of animate and inanimate bodies.—Particular remark relative to sympathies.—Their general phenomena. 23
IV. Of the Vital Properties and their Phenomena considered in relation to the Solids and the Fluids.
Division of the fluids into those of composition and those of decomposition.—The vital properties are seated essentially in the solids.—These are the seat of almost all the morbid symptoms.—The fluids however may be affected.—Different attributes of the fluids of composition and of those of decomposition in diseases.—How the alterations of the first may take place.—Of those of the second.—Of the cases in which the solids and the fluids are primarily affected.—Division of diseases in this view.—The question must necessarily be considered in many points of view.—What is true on one side is not so on another.—Of the vitality of the fluids.—What it is.—Their alterations affect their vitality.—New proofs of these alterations.—How the fluids are assimilated and altered. 29
V. Of the Properties Independent of Life.
Properties of texture.—Of contractility by the horny hardening.—Of the agents which put it into action.—It is of two kinds.—Characters of each.—Their differences.—Almost all the solids undergo the horny hardening.—Condition which it requires.—Of the horny hardening during life and after death.—Difference of this contractility from the others.—General remarks. 38
VI. General Observations upon the Organization of Animals.
Of the simple systems.—Necessity of considering them abstractedly.—Their difference of forms.—Their variety of organization, 1st, in the peculiar texture; 2d, in the common parts.—Manner of knowing these differences.—Differences of the vital properties and of texture.—Of the peculiar life.—It cannot be understood of the compound organs, but of the simple systems.—Examples which prove this assertion in the different organs. 44
VII. Consequences of the preceding Principles relative to Diseases.
Each texture can be separately affected in an organ.—This even almost always happens.—Various proofs of this assertion.—Observations upon different diseases.—Sympathies do not take place in an organ as a whole, but in some one texture of this organ.—Why.—Of sympathetic fevers.—The different inflammations vary in each texture.—Phenomena of the different kinds of virus variable from the same cause.—Yet the different textures of the same organ have a certain dependance upon each other.—Proofs.—Diseases chronic and acute.—Differences of diseases in each simple system.—Two classes of symptoms in the local affections.—Their difference.—Varieties of the pain, heat, &c. according to the systems.—What should be understood by acute and chronic affections in the simple systems.—Influence of these considerations upon morbid anatomy.—Defects of the old divisions.—New manner of considering morbid anatomy. 49
VIII. Remarks upon the Classification of the Functions.
Table of this classification. 60
SYSTEMS COMMON TO ALL THE APPARATUS.
General Observations.
Division of the systems.—Systems common to all the apparatus.—Their characters.—They form the nutritive parenchyma of the organs.—Remarks upon nutrition.—Diversity of the nutritive substances. 77
CELLULAR SYSTEM.
General Remarks.—Division. 87
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE ORGANS.
I. Of the Cellular System exterior to each Organ.
Division of the organs in relation to the neighbouring texture. 88
Of the Cellular System which adheres only to one side of the organs.
Sub-cutaneous cellular texture.—Arrangement of this texture, 1st, upon the median line; 2d, in the different regions of the body.—Varieties of density and laxity. Uses of the sub-cutaneous texture.—Its fluids. 88
Sub-mucous cellular texture.—Difference of this texture from the preceding.—The density of that.—Consequences.
Sub-serous cellular texture.—It is in general loose and abundant.—Why.—Place where it is dense. 92
Cellular texture exterior to the arteries.—Its peculiar nature is analogous to that of the sub-mucous texture.—Its relations with the arterial fibres.
Cellular texture exterior to the veins.—It is analogous to the preceding, only less thick.—Remarks.
Cellular texture exterior to the excretory ducts.—The same structure and arrangement as in the preceding. 96
Of the cellular system considered in relation to the organs that it surrounds on all sides.—Cellular atmosphere.—Fluids of this atmosphere.—Insulation of the vitality of the organs.—Of this atmosphere considered as a means for the propagation of diseases.—It favours the motion of the parts. 96
II. Of the Internal Cellular System of each Organ.
Arrangement of this texture.—Its uses.—Its different proportions. 102
ARTICLE SECOND.
OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM CONSIDERED INDEPENDENTLY OF THE ORGANS.
I. Of the Cellular System of the Head.
Cellular texture of the cranium.—It is almost nothing within.—Its communications.—Consequences of these communications.—It is more abundant without.
Cellular texture of the face.—It is very abundant.—Its uses.—Its communications, &c. 104
II. Of the Cellular System of the Trunk.
Vertebral cellular texture.—It is not abundant in the cavity of the canal.—On the exterior, there is but little behind, and more in front.—Consequences.
Cervical cellular texture.—It is abundant.—Its communications.—Consequences.
Pectoral cellular texture.—It is found especially upon the median line.—Its communications.—External texture.
Abdominal cellular texture.—Of the parts in which it is most abundant.—Its communications.
Cellular texture of the pelvis.—It is very abundant.—Why.—Consequences.—Its communications. 108
III. Of the Cellular System of the Extremities.
Its different proportions in the superior and the inferior. 112
ARTICLE THIRD.
OF THE FORMS OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM, AND THE FLUIDS IT CONTAINS.
I. Of the Cells.
Their form.—Their capacity.—Their communication.—-Experiments.—Of the cellular permeability.—In what sense it should be understood. 114
II. Of the Serum of the Cellular Membrane.
Proof of its existence.—Its evaporation.—It varies in the different regions.—Method of ascertaining the proportions of it.—Experiments.—Nature of this fluid.—Experiments. 117
III. Of the Cellular Fat.
Natural proportions of the fat.—Varieties of its proportions according to the regions, organs, systems, &c—Its peculiar arrangement in childhood.—Varieties according to the other ages. 119
Unnatural proportions of fat.—Its preternatural abundance indicates weakness.—Different proofs.—Of the causes of the diminution of fat.—Remark upon this diminution. 121
Different states of the fat.—Its degree of fluidity is not during life in proportion to temperature.—Its consistence in young animals.—Consequences.—Its alterations by age, diseases, &c. 125
Exhalation of fat.—Different opinions.—The fat is exhaled.—Proofs.—Nature of this fluid.—Relation of its uses with the places where it exists and with those in which it is wanting. 127
ARTICLE FOURTH.
ORGANIZATION OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to the organization of the Cellular System.
Filaments and layers from which it results.—Method of seeing them to advantage.—Their nature.—Essential difference in the cellular organization.—There are two species of cellular texture. 129
Composition of the cellular texture.—Experiments upon this texture.—Action of the air, water, caloric and the gastric juices.—Experiments.—Of the gases sometimes extricated in the cellular texture. 132
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Cellular Texture.
Blood vessels.—The inaccuracy of injections in demonstrating them.
Exhalants.—Of the cellular exhalations.—Proofs and phenomena of these exhalations.
Absorbents.—Cellular absorptions.—Proofs.—The cellular texture is not wholly formed of absorbents.
Nerves. 136
ARTICLE FIFTH.
PROPERTIES OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM.
I. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—Examples of the different distensions.—Distinctive character of the cellular extensibility.—Its phenomena.—It becomes nothing in inflammation, chronic engorgements, &c.
Contractility.—Different examples of this property brought into action.—Its varieties according to the ages.—General remarks. 140
II. Vital Properties.
The animal ones are inconsiderable.—The organic are greater, except sensible contractility, which however exists to a certain extent.
Sympathies.—It is necessary to distinguish them from the phenomena of juxta-position.—Various examples.—General observations.—Vital properties put in action by the sympathies.
Character of the vital properties.—The vital activity is very considerable in the cellular texture.—Various proofs.—Remarks upon the species.—Difference of vitality in the two species of cellular texture. 143
III. Properties of Reproduction.
Influence of the cellular texture upon the formation of cicatrices.—Division of the periods of the cicatrices.
First period.—Inflammation.—How it takes place.—Its advantages.
Second period.—Fleshy granulations.—Experiments.—Provisional membrane of the cicatrices.—Its uses.—General phenomena of the internal cicatrices.—Cellular nature of this membrane and of the granulations.—Different opinions.
Third period.—Suppuration.—What corresponds to it in the internal cicatrices.—Analogy of these cicatrices with the external.
Fourth period.—Contraction of the fleshy granulations.—Adhesions.—Consequences of the preceding principles.—Of union by the first intention. 148
Influence of the cellular texture in the formation of tumours.—Cellular nature of all tumours which grow and increase.—Proofs.—Mode of development of these tumours.—How they differ from various engorgements, acute and chronic. 157
Influence of the cellular texture in the formation of cysts.—What is a cyst.—Its analogy with the serous surfaces.—Its cellular structure.—Mode of its development. 160
ARTICLE SIXTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELLULAR TEXTURE.
I. State of the Cellular System in the First Age.
Mucous mass represented by the cellular texture of the fœtus.—Superabundance of fluid.—This is then the cellular fluid.—Difficulty of emphysema in the fœtus.—State of the cellular texture in infancy and youth.—Its vital energy.—Consequences. 164
II. State of the Cellular System in the After Ages.
Arrangement of the cellular texture in the adult.—Differences arising from sex.—Degeneracy of this texture in old age.—Withering that it experiences.—Consequences. 167
NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
Division of the nerves into two systems.—Differences of these two systems.—General arrangement of that of animal life.—Its symmetry.—Relation of size between the nerves and the brain. 169
ARTICLE FIRST.
EXTERNAL FORMS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. Origin of the Cerebral Nerves.
In what sense this origin must be understood.—It takes place, 1st, in the brain; 2d, in the tuber annulare and its dependancies; 3d, in the spinal marrow.—Manner of this triple origin.—Of the crossing of the nerves.—Phenomena of paralysis in regard to this.—Peculiar arrangement of the cerebral membranes at the origin of the nerves.—Extent, direction and form of the nerves at this origin. 171
II. Course of the Cerebral Nerves.
Communications of the cerebral nerves at their exit from their osseous cavity.—There are none between the nerves of the brain properly called.—The communications begin in those of the tuber annulare.—They are very numerous in those of the spinal marrow.—Arrangement of the plexuses which result from them.—Consequences as it regards descriptive neurology.
Internal communications of the nervous cords.—Manner of these communications.—Internal plexus to each nerve.—Consequences.—Difference from anastomoses.
Nervous Trunks.—Their course.—Their form.—Their length, &c.
Nervous branches, smaller branches, ramifications, &c.—Mode of origin.—Length.—Course, &c. 176
III. Termination of the Nerves.
What is to be understood by it.—Triple mode of termination.
Anastomoses with the same system.—What is to be understood by anastomoses.—They are rare in this system.—They can be referred to three classes.
Anastomoses with the system of organic life.—Termination in the organs.—Manner of this termination.—Division of the organs in this respect. 182
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. Texture peculiar to this Organization.
Arrangement of the nervous cords.—Their varieties.—Each nerve has its peculiar organization.—Of the structure of the nervous filaments
Of the nervous coat and its origin.—How this origin may be seen.—Its triple arrangement at the brain, the tuber annulare and the spinal marrow.—Particular arrangement of the optic nerve.—Remarks upon the pia mater.—Course of the nervous coat. 185
Action of certain substances upon the nervous coat; its resistance, &c.—Action of the acids, water, caloric, and the alkalies.—Resistance of the nervous coat.
Medullary substance; its origin, arrangement and proportions.
Comparison between the medullary substance of the brain and the nerves.—Effect of desiccation upon each.—Putrefaction and its phenomena.—Absence of the horny hardening in both.—Action of water upon both.—Action of the acids, the alkalies, neutral salts and the digestive juices.—Difference of the nervous pulp in each part. 190
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Nervous System of Animal Life.
Cellular texture.—It is wanting in the nerves, in the cranium and the spine. Elsewhere it is found between their filaments and cords.—Cellular fat.
Blood vessels.—Their arrangement.—Remarks upon the veins.—Of the blood.—Of the nerves.—Action of this fluid upon them.
Exhalants and Absorbents.—Examination of the opinion upon the exhalation of the nervous coat.—Different observations.
Nerves. 199
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. Properties of Texture.
They are but very slightly marked.—Remarks upon the nervous distensions. 204
II. Vital Properties.—Properties of Animal Life.
Animal sensibility inherent in the nerves.—Various experiments upon this sensibility.—Remarks upon that of the brain.—Phenomena of the experiments upon the nerves.—Character of the animal nervous sensibility. —Of neuralgias.—Another character of this sensibility.—Experiments.—Consequences. 206
Influence of the nerves upon the animal sensibility of all the organs.—Distinction of the sensations, in this respect, into external and internal.—Subdivision of the external into general and particular.—Part which the nerves perform in each.—Internal sensations.—Uncertainty respecting the nervous influence in sensations.—Differences between animal sensibility and contractility.—Of the nervous atmosphere.—Uncertainty of this opinion. 211
Animal contractility.—Influence of the nerves upon that of the other parts.—How the nerves are the agents of this property.—Different opinions upon the action of the nerves.—Uncertainty of these opinions.—General observations.
Properties of organic life, considered in the nerves.—They are slightly marked.—Increase of the size of the nerves in the affections of some parts.—Various experiments and observations.
Influence of the cerebral nerves upon the organic properties of the other parts.—They are foreign to these properties.—They have not there any known influence, 1st, upon the capillary circulation; 2d, upon exhalation; 3d, upon secretion; 4th, upon absorption; 5th, upon nutrition.—Different proofs of these assertions.—Remarks on the diseases which affect animal life and those which affect organic.—Uncertainty of the term nervous influence. 216
Sympathies.—Sympathies peculiar to the nerves.—Different phenomena of these sympathies.—Sympathies, 1st, between two nerves of the same pair; 2d, between two nerves of the same side; 3d, between the branches of the same pair; 4th, between the nerves and different organs.—Different examples of these sympathies. 224
Influence of the nerves upon the sympathies of the other organs.—Different opinions upon sympathies.—Uncertainty of these opinions.—Division of sympathies founded upon that of the vital properties.—Different influence of the nerves upon each species of sympathy.—Cases in which it is real and those in which it is nothing. 226
III. Properties of Reproduction.
Phenomena of nervous cicatrizations.—Their analogy with other cicatrizations. 233
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
It is much developed.—General remarks.—Inactivity of the brain, notwithstanding its development.—Its softness.—Action of the alkalies upon this organ.—The cerebral nerves are developed in proportion.—Peculiar phenomenon of their development.—This phenomenon is opposite to that of the arteries.—Consequence which results from it. 235
II. State of the Nervous System during Growth.
Phenomena at birth.—Influence of the red blood.—Predominance of the nervous system during childhood.—Consequences relative to the sensations, motions and various affections. 240
III. State of the Nervous System after Growth.
Phenomenon of puberty.—Phenomena of the following ages. 244
IV. State of the Nervous System in Old Age.
Its action is slight.—State of the brain at this period.—Influence of this state upon sensibility.—Phenomena of sensation and motion in old age. 244
NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.
GENERAL REMARKS.
How this system should be understood.—The great sympathetic does not exist.—Each ganglion forms an insulated system.—This system belongs to organic life.—It exhibits many irregularities.—The mode of describing it. 249
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE GANGLIONS.
I. Situation, Forms, Relations, &c.
Ganglions that are constant.—Those that are accidental. 253
II. Organization.
Colour.—Difference of the texture of the ganglions from that of the brain.—Comparative experiments.—This texture is not fibrous.—It differs essentially from that of the nerves.—Its organic lesions are rare.—Common parts of this texture. 255
III. Properties.
The ganglions have the organic ones.—The animal appear to be slightly marked in them.—Experiments.—Sympathies.—Nervous affections of the ganglions.—The kind of pain of this system.—General remarks. 260
IV. Development.
It does not follow that of the brain.—Influence of this fact upon the diseases of childhood.—Another difference between the ganglions and the brain. 263
V. Remarks upon the Vertebral Ganglions.
Their arrangement.—Obscurity which they throw upon the functions of this system. 264
ARTICLE SECOND.
OF THE NERVES OF ORGANIC LIFE.
I. Origin.
Manner of this origin.—Method of seeing it. 265
II. Course, Termination, Plexuses.
Of the branches which go to the cerebral nerves.—Of those which go to the neighbouring ganglions.—Of those which go the muscles.—Of those which form the plexuses.—Arrangement of these last.—Of the filaments which go from them.—Their double arrangement upon the arteries. 267
III. Structure, Properties, &c.
Analogy with the preceding nerves as to texture.—Animal sensibility appears to be less in them.—Experiments.—Sympathies of these nerves.—General remarks. 271
VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH RED BLOOD.
ARTICLE FIRST.
GENERAL REMARKS UPON THE CIRCULATION.
I. Division of the Circulation.
Circulation of red blood.—General organs.—Direction.
Circulation of black blood.—General organs.—Direction.
Difference of the two circulations.—Their separation is complete.—Opposition of the lungs to all the parts.
General mechanical phenomena of the two circulations.—Conical form of the circulatory apparatus.—There are two cones for each circulation.—The heart is placed at their union as a double agent of impulse.—Its inequality in this respect. 275
II. Reflections upon the General Uses of the Circulation.
General uses of the circulation of the red blood.—It furnishes the materials of secretion, exhalation, absorption, &c.—All the great phenomena of the economy are derived from it.
General uses of the circulation of black blood.—It repairs the losses made by the preceding, by the substances which it receives.—General and opposite attributes of the two—sanguineous systems. 282
ARTICLE SECOND.
SITUATION, FORMS, AND GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH RED BLOOD.
Of the two portions of this system.—Of their union.—Position of the agent of impulse compared to the whole body. 285
I. Origin of the Arteries.
Origin of the aorta.—Peculiar anatomical arrangement of this origin. 287
Origin of the trunks, branches, smaller branches, &c.—Number of the arterial divisions.—Angles of origin.—Proportion of the divisions. 288
II. Course of the Arteries.
Course of the trunks and branches.—Their position, relation and direction.—Motions which they communicate. 291
Course of the smaller branches, ramifications, &c.—Position.—Relations.—Curvatures.—These curvatures have no influence upon the motion of the blood.—Proofs.—Uses of these curvatures. 293
Anastomoses of the arteries in their course.—Of the two modes of anastomoses.—Triple mode of those in which two equal trunks terminate.—Anastomoses with unequal trunks.—General remarks upon anastomoses. 296
Forms of the arteries in their course.—In what direction they are conical.—Relation of capacities. 299
III. Termination of the Arteries.
It takes place in the capillary system.—Its varieties according to the organs. 300
ARTICLE THIRD.
ORGANIZATION OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH RED BLOOD.
I. Texture peculiar to this Organization.
Two principal membranes form it. 301
Peculiar membrane of the arteries.—Thickness.—Colour.—Experiments.—Varieties in the cerebral arteries.—Arterial fibres.—Arrangement of these fibres at the origin of the branches.—Their nature is not muscular.— Their brittleness.—Their resistance.—General consequences. 302
Action of different agents upon the arterial texture.—Desiccation.—Putrefaction.—Maceration.—Stewing.—Action of the acids, the alkalies, &c. 308
Membrane common to the system with red blood.—Its differences in the different regions.—Of the fluid which moistens it.—Its relations.—Its nature.—Its singular disposition to ossification.—Peculiar phenomena and laws of this ossification.—Pathological consequences. 311
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Vascular System with Red Blood.
Blood vessels.—Their arrangement.—They do not appear to go to the internal membrane. 317
Cellular texture.—There are two species of it.—Of that which unites the artery to the neighbouring organs.—Of that which is peculiar to it, and which has a peculiar nature.—The arterial fibres are remarkable for having none of this texture between them.—Consequences. 318
Exhalants and absorbents.—There does not appear to be absorption in the arteries.—Experiments. 321
Nerves.—Of the cerebral ones.—Of the organic ones.—Their proportion.—Their course, &c. 324
ARTICLE FOURTH.
PROPERTIES OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH RED BLOOD.
I. Physical Properties.
Remarkable elasticity.—Its use.—Its differences from contractility of texture. 322
II. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—1st, of that in the axis; 2d, of that in the diameter. 324
Contractility.—Of that in the axis.—Of that in the diameter.—Its differences from irritability.—Remarks upon this contractility.—Practical consequences. 326
III. Vital Properties. Properties of Animal Life.
Sensibility.—Experiments upon this property. 329
Contractility.—It is nothing. ib.
Properties of organic life.—Sensible organic Contractility.—It is nothing.—Different experiments to prove it.—Mistakes concerning this property. 330
Insensible organic contractility.—How its influence must be understood.—Vital activity is but slightly marked in the arteries.—General consequences. 332
Remarks upon the causes of the motion of the red blood.—These causes appear to be foreign to the arteries. 335
Influence of the heart in the motion of red blood.—Different proofs of this influence.—Morbid phenomena.—Different experiments.—Observations.—General Consequences. 336
Of the limits of the action of the heart.—They appear to be at the place of the change of the red blood into black.—Increasing influence of the arteries upon the red blood in the neighbourhood of the capillaries. 342
Phenomena of the impulse of the heart.—The motion of the red blood is sudden and instantaneous.—Proofs.—The contraction of the arteries does not push the blood.—From what it arises.—The causes of delay are nothing.—General remarks. 334
Remarks upon the pulse.—The arterial locomotion has a great part in it.—Of the accessory causes.—Of the varieties of the pulse.—General reflections. 348
Sympathies.—They are in general rare in the arteries.—Why. 352
ARTICLE FIFTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH RED BLOOD.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
The two systems are then confounded.—There is but one species of blood.—How the fœtus can live with black blood alone.—Peculiar mode of circulation in the fœtus.—Consequences which result from it.—Insensible change of this mode of circulation.—How it takes place.—Great development of the arteries in the fœtus. 354
II. State of the Vascular System with Red Blood during Growth.
Sudden formation of the red blood at birth.—Changes in the course of this fluid.—Phenomena and causes of these changes.—Predominance of the arteries during youth. 364
III. State of the Vascular System with Red Blood after Growth.
Influence of the genital organs.—Varieties of the influence of the red blood according to the ages. 371
IV. State of the Vascular System with Red Blood during old Age.
Diminution of the arterial ramifications.—The red blood is less abundant.—The arteries are condensed.—Phenomena of the pulse.—Of the pulse in the last moments of life.—Experiments upon this subject. 373
V. Accidental Development of the System with Red Blood.
There are two kinds of it; 1st, Dilatation from an obstacle. 2d, Dilatation from any tumour. 377
VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
SITUATION, FORMS, DIVISION AND GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD.
I. Origin of the Veins.
Manner of this origin.—Two orders of veins. 380
II. Course of the Veins.
Examination of this course on the exterior and the interior. 381
III. Proportion of the capacity of the two systems with Black and Red Blood.
Remarks upon the varieties of venous capacity.—Parallel between the two vascular apparatus with red and black blood in this respect.—General consequences.—The velocity is in an inverse ratio of the capacity, &c.
382
Ramifications, small branches, branches, angles of union, &c.—Forms of the Veins.—In what direction these vessels are conical.—Relations between the branches and their divisions. 388
Anastomoses.—They are very frequent.—Why.—Communication between the external and the internal order.—Consequences.—Different modes of anastomoses.—Their necessity from the numerous obstacles to the course of the blood.—Of these obstacles. 392
IV. Termination of the Veins.
Mode of termination in the heart.—Of the two venous cones, the superior and the inferior.—Of their communication by the azygos. 396
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD.
I. Texture peculiar to this Organization.
Membrane peculiar to the veins.—Manner of seeing it.—Its longitudinal fibres.—Varieties of these fibres.—Their nature.—Peculiar arrangement of the cerebral sinuses. 399
Common membrane of the black blood.—Its differences from that of the red blood.—More extensibility.—Less thickness.—No disposition to ossify.—Consequences. 403
Of the valves of the veins.—Their form.—Their situation.—Veins which they occupy.—Their size.—Remarks upon their relations with the caliber of the veins.—Their variety.—Their number. 404
Action of reagents upon the venous texture.—Action of the air, water, caloric, the acids, &c. 407
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Vascular System with Black Blood.
Blood vessels. Cellular texture.—Of that which unites the veins to the neighbouring parts.—Of that which is peculiar to them. 408
Exhalants and Absorbents.—Experiments upon venous absorption.
Nerves.—There are but very few of them. 409
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD.
I. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—It is very evident.—Venous ruptures however take place.—Various examples.—Their causes are but obscurely known. 411
Contractility—Of this property in the longitudinal and the transverse direction. 413
II. Vital Properties.
Properties of Animal Life.—Result of the experiments upon sensibility.—There is no contractility. 414
Properties of organic life. Sensible Contractility.—It appears to be but slight.—General remarks. 415
Of the venous pulse.—Of its cause.—It is a reflux.—Double cause which produces it. 416
Insensible Contractility.—It appears to exist.—The vital activity is greater in the veins than in the arteries.—Consequences. 419
Observations on the motion of the black blood in the veins.—There is no pulse analogous to that of the arteries.—Agent of impulse of the venous blood.—Causes of delay—Accessory causes of motion.—Resemblance between the motion of the veins and that of the arteries. 420
Sympathies of the veins.—They are very obscure. 424
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
The veins are less developed in proportion than the arteries.—Why.—Remarks. 425
II. State of this System during Growth and afterwards.
Various phenomena of childhood, adult age, &c. 427
III. State of this System in Old Age.
The veins are much developed in old age.—This development is only a dilatation.—Its varieties according to different circumstances. 428
IV. Accidental Development of the Veins.
It must be considered, 1st, in tumours; 2d, in the distensions of the different parts. 430
ARTICLE FIFTH.
REMARKS UPON THE PULMONARY ARTERY AND VEINS.
Though the two kinds of blood are separate, yet the mechanical phenomena of their courses are analogous in the aorta and the pulmonary artery, and in the general and the pulmonary veins. ib.
ARTICLE SIXTH.
ABDOMINAL VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD.
Situation, forms, general arrangement, anastomoses, &c.—Origin and termination in the capillaries.—Abdominal portion.—Hepatic portion.—Differences between them. 433
Organization, properties, &c.—Analogy with the veins in this respect.—Peculiar arrangement in the hepatic portion.—Absence of valves.—Why. 436
Remarks upon the motion of the black abdominal blood.—Comparison between the liver and the lungs.—Their difference as it regards the blood that goes to them.—Mechanism of the circulation of this system.—Influence of the accessory causes. 438
Remarks upon the liver.—It performs another function besides the secretion of bile.—Proofs.—We are ignorant of this function.—It must be extremely important.—Various proofs.—The liver exhibits phenomena that no other gland does.—It is not certain that the black abdominal blood serves for the secretion of bile.—Proofs.—General observations.—Experiments. 440
Remarks upon the course of the bile.—Course of this fluid during abstinence and during digestion.—Cystic bile.—Hepatic bile.—Reflux towards the stomach during vacuity and fulness.—Experiments. 446
Development.—There is only one vascular system in the fœtus.—It is divided into three at birth.—State of the umbilical vein and the vena porta in the fœtus.—Relative size of the liver at this period.—Phenomena at birth.—Different influences of this system in the following ages. 450
END OF CONTENTS TO VOL. I.
VOLUME SECOND. CAPILLARY SYSTEMS.
PAGE.
There are two of them.—Their general arrangement.—Their opposition. 3
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE GENERAL CAPILLARY SYSTEM.
General arrangement of this system. 4
I. General division of the Capillaries.
Of the organs in which the capillaries contain only blood.. 6
Of the organs in which the capillaries contain blood and fluids differing from it.—Serous system taken for an example.—Experiments by injections.—Various other systems present analogous facts.—Proportion of the blood and the fluids differing from it. ib.
Of the organs in which the capillaries do not contain blood. 8
II. Difference of Organs in respect to the number of their Capillaries.
There are many classes of organs in this respect.—Why the capillaries are very much developed in some.—Consequences as it regards diseases. 9
Remarks upon injections.—Their insufficiency in making us acquainted with the small vessels. 10
III. Of the proportions which exist in the Capillaries between the Blood and the Fluids that differ from it.
Continual varieties in the proportion.—Cause of these varieties.—They are very numerous. 12
Different proportions of blood in the capillaries, according as the secretions and exhalations are active or passive.—Of active and passive exhalations.—Of secretions of the same nature.—Examination of each.—Proofs that wherever there is activity, blood enters the capillaries.—Opposite arrangement in the passive phenomena. 13
Consequences of the preceding Remarks. 17
IV. Of the Anastomoses of the General Capillary System.
Mode of these anastomoses.—The capillaries considered in relation to the vessels with which they communicate.—Influence of these communications.—Important observation in regard to the examination of dead bodies.—How acute inflammations disappear at death. 17
V. How, notwithstanding the general communication of the Capillary System, the Blood and the Fluids differing from it, remain separate.
This depends on the different modifications of the organic sensibility.—Proofs.—General remarks. 21
VI. Consequences of the preceding principles, in relation to Inflammation.
Every thing arises, in this affection, from the alteration of the organic sensibility.—Proofs.—Varieties of intensity and nature in inflammations.—Terminations of inflammations.—Of putrefaction.—Of death.—Of induration.—Of the blood which stops in inflamed parts. 24
Differences of inflammation according to the different systems.—Each has a peculiar one.—Of those which are the most disposed to it.—It has peculiar modifications in each.—Same observation in regard to its terminations. 30
VII. Structure and Properties of the Capillaries.
We cannot ascertain completely the structure.—It has however varieties. 33
VIII. Of the Circulation of the Capillaries.
Motions of the fluids in the Capillary System.—The blood is independent of the action of the heart in the capillaries.—Various proofs of this assertion.—The blood circulates by the influence of the forces of the part.—Varieties of the motions.—Causes of these varieties.—Influence of the atmosphere upon the capillary circulation.—Of the two kinds of bleeding in relation to the capillaries and to the trunks.—Circulation of other fluids than the blood in the capillaries. 34
Phenomena of the alteration of the fluids in the Capillary System.—Change of the red blood to black.—Phenomena of this change. 41
IX. Of the Capillaries considered as the seat of the production of Heat.
Different hypotheses.—Phenomena of animal heat.—How it is produced.—Analogy of the production of heat with exhalation, secretion, &c.—Influence of the different vital forces.—Explanation of the phenomena of animal heat in the state of health and disease.—Sympathetic heat.—Sympathies of heat.—Difference between the two. 43
ARTICLE SECOND.
PULMONARY CAPILLARY SYSTEM.
I. Relation of the two Capillary Systems, Pulmonary and General.
How all the blood of the general system can go through the pulmonary.—Difference of one from the other as it respects the course of this fluid. 55
II. Remarks upon the Circulation of the Pulmonary Capillaries.
Peculiar character of pulmonary inflammations.—Phenomena to which they give rise.—Of the pulmonary circulation in various other diseases. 58
III. Alteration of the Blood in the Pulmonary Capillaries. 63
IV. Remarks upon the state of the Lungs in Dead Bodies.
Their proportions very various from engorgement.—They are hardly ever in the natural state.—Why.—Consequences. 64
EXHALANT SYSTEM.
General Remarks upon the differences of exhalations and absorptions. 67
ARTICLE FIRST.
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE EXHALANTS.
I. Origin, Course and Termination.
Different hypotheses respecting these vessels.—What observation shows us concerning them. 69
II. Division of the Exhalants.
They can be referred to three classes.—Table of these classes and their division. 71
III. Difference of the Exhalations. 73
ARTICLE SECOND.
PROPERTIES, FUNCTIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXHALANT SYSTEM.
I. Properties.
We are ignorant of those of texture.—The organic are very evident in it. 74
Characters of the Vital Properties.—They vary in each system.—Consequences as it regards functions. ib.
II. Of Natural Exhalations.
They are all derived from the vital properties.—They vary consequently like these properties.—Proofs.—Of sympathetic exhalations. 75
III. Of Preternatural Exhalations.
Sanguineous exhalation.—Hemorrhage of the excrementitious exhalants.—Hemorrhage from the skin.—Hemorrhages from the mucous surfaces.—They take place by exhalation.—Proofs.—Experiments.—Of active and passive hemorrhages.—Differences between hemorrhages by rupture and by exhalation, between those of the capillaries and those of the great vessels. 78
Hemorrhages of the recrementitious exhalants.—Hemorrhages of the serous surfaces.—Observations concerning dead bodies.—Cellular hemorrhages.—Other hemorrhages of the exhalants. 85
Preternatural exhalations, not sanguineous.—Varieties of the exhaled fluids, according to the state of the vital forces of the exhalants.—Different examples of these varieties. 87
IV. Of the preternatural development of the exhalants.
It is especially in cysts that it takes place.—The secreted fluids are never preternaturally poured out like the exhaled.—Why.—Of the natural emunctories. 88
ABSORBENT SYSTEM.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE ABSORBENT VESSELS.
I. Origin of the Absorbents.
Table of absorptions.—Of external absorptions.—Of internal absorptions.—Of the nutritive absorptions.—It is impossible to know the mode of origin of the absorbents.—Interlacing of the branches. 91
II. Course of the Absorbents.
Their division into two layers, superficial and deep-seated.—Their arrangement in the extremities and the trunk. 95
Forms of the absorbents in their course.—They are cylindrical, full of knots, &c.—Consequences of these forms.—The absorbents have not as great capacity during life as in the dead body. 97
Of the capacity of the absorbents in their course.—Manner of ascertaining it.—Extreme varieties which it exhibits.—Capacity of the absorbents compared with that of the veins. 99
Anastomoses of the absorbents in their course.—Different modes of these anastomoses.—Remarks upon the lymphatic circulation. 102
Remarks upon the difference of dropsies that are produced by the increase of exhalation, and those that are the effect of a diminution of absorption.—Cases that may be referred to one or the other cause. 104
III. Termination of the Absorbents.
Trunks of termination.—Their disproportion with the branches.—Consequences.—Difficulties in regard to the motion of the lymph.—Remarks upon venous absorption. 105
IV. Structure of the Absorbents.
Exterior texture.—Vessels.—Peculiar membrane.—Valves.—Uses of these last. 109
ARTICLE SECOND.
LYMPHATIC GLANDS.
I. Situation, Size, Forms, &c.
Varieties of their number and situation in the different regions.—Relation with the cellular texture.—Varieties from age, sex, &c. 111
II. Organization.
Colour.—Its varieties.—Particular arrangement about the bronchia. 114
Common parts.—External cellular texture.—Cellular membrane.—Vessels. 115
Peculiar texture.—Density.—Cells.—Contained fluid.—Properties and phenomena of this texture.—Interlacing of the absorbents. 116
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE ABSORBENT SYSTEM.
I. Properties of Texture. 118
II. Vital Properties.
Animal sensibility.—Its phenomena in the vessels and the glands.—Organic properties.—Their duration after death.—Remarks upon the absorbent faculty of dead bodies. 119
Characters of the vital properties.—Life is very evident in this system.—Its disposition to inflammation.—Character which this affection has in it. 122
Differences of the vital properties in the absorbent vessels and their glands.—These differences are remarkable.—Their influence upon diseases. 123
Sympathies.—Sympathies of the glands.—Sympathies of the vessels.—Remarks upon the engorgements of the lymphatic glands. 124
ARTICLE FOURTH.
OF ABSORPTION.
I. Influence of the Vital Forces upon this Function.
All depends on the organic properties. 128
II. Varieties of Absorption.
Different examples.—Of resolution.—Of the absorption of morbific principles. 129
III. Motion of the Fluids in the Absorbents.
Laws of this motion.—It is not subject to any reflux.—Why. 132
IV. Of Absorption in the different Ages.
It appears that the internal and external absorptions are opposite at the two extreme ages.—Remarks. 134
V. Preternatural Absorption.
Absorption of certain fluids different from those naturally absorbed.—Absorption in the cysts. 138
SYSTEMS PECULIAR TO CERTAIN APPARATUS.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Differences of the systems peculiar to certain apparatus, from those common to all.—Characters of the first.—Their distribution in the apparatus. 139
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE FORMS OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. DIVISION OF THE BONES.
I. Of the Long Bones.
Relation of their position with their general uses.—External forms of the body and the extremities.—Internal forms.—Medullary canal.—Its situation, extent and form.—Its use.—It disappears in the first periods of callus.—It is shorter in proportion in childhood. 144
II. Of the Flat Bones.
Relations of their situation and external forms with the general use of forming the cavities.—Internal forms. 147
III. Of the Short Bones.
Position.—Internal and external forms.—General uses. 149
IV. Of the Bony Eminences.
Their division into those, 1st, of articulation; 2d, of insertion; 3d, of reflection; 4th, of impression.—Remarks upon each of these divisions.—Relations of the second with the muscular force.—How these last are formed. 150
V. Of the Osseous Cavities.
Their division into those, 1st, of insertion; 2d, of reception; 3d, of sliding; 4th, of impression; 5th, of transmission; 6th, of nutrition.—Particular remarks upon each division.—Of the three kinds of canals of nutrition. 153
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
I. Texture Peculiar to the Osseous System.
Common division of this texture.
Texture with cells.—How it is formed.—When it is formed.—Of the cells and their communications.—Experiments. 156
Compact texture.—Arrangement of its fibres.—Their formation.—Experiments to ascertain their direction.—The osseous layers do not exist.—Proofs.—Influence of rickets upon the compact texture. 158
Arrangement of the two osseous textures in the three kinds of Bones.—Arrangement of the compact texture.—Two kinds of texture with cells in the long bones.—Proportion of the common texture with cells and the compact texture in the short and broad bones.—The same proportion examined in the cavities and the osseous eminences. 161
Of the composition of the osseous texture.—There are two principal bases.—Of the saline calcareous substance.—Experiments.—Nature of this substance.—Experiments to ascertain the gelatinous substance.—Different relations of each of these substances with vitality. 164
II. Common Parts which enter into the organization of the Osseous System.
Three orders of blood vessels.—Arrangement of each.—Experiments.—Proportions according to age.—Communication.—Proofs of the existence of the cellular texture. 167
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
I. Physical Properties.
Elasticity.—It is in the inverse ratio of the age. 171
II. Properties of Texture.
Different examples of contractility and extensibility.—Characters of these properties. 171
III. Vital Properties.
They are obscure. 173
Characters of these properties.—Slowness of their development.—Their influence upon diseases. 174
Sympathies.—Their character is always chronic.—General remark upon sympathies. 175
Seat of the vital properties.—They are not seated in the calcareous substance.—They exist only in the gelatinous.—Experiment which proves it. 177
ARTICLE FOURTH.
OF THE ARTICULATIONS OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
I. Division of the Articulations.
Moveable Articulations.—Observations upon their Motions.—1st. Opposition; it is extensive or confined.—2d. Circumduction; a motion composed of all those of opposition.—3d. Rotation; a motion upon the axis.—4th. Sliding. 180
Immoveable articulations.—They are on surfaces in juxta-position, inserted into each other or implanted. 182
Table of the Articulations. 183
II. Observations upon the Moveable Articulations.
First genus.—Situation.—Form of the surfaces.—Rotation and circumduction are inversely in the humerus and the femur.—Why. 184
Second genus.—Form of the surfaces.—Motions. 186
Third genus.—Diminution of the motions.—Direction in which they take place. 187
Fourth genus.—Motions still less. 189
Fifth genus.—Remarkable obscurity of the motions. 190
III. Observations upon the Immoveable Articulations.
Situation, forms of each order.—Relation of the structure to the uses. 191
IV. Of the means of Union between the Articular Surfaces.
Union of the immoveable Articulations.—Cartilages of union. 193
Union of moveable articulations.—Ligaments and muscles considered as articular bands. 194
ARTICLE FIFTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
Remarks. 195
I. State of the Osseous System during Growth.
Mucous State.—What should be understood by it. 195
Cartilaginous State.—Period and mode of its development.—Of this state in the broad bones. 197
Osseous State.—Its phenomena.—Its period. 198
Progress of the osseous state in the long bones; 1st, in the middle; 2d, in the extremities. 200
Progress of the osseous state in the broad bones.—Varieties according to the bones.—Formation of the ossa wormiana. ib.
Progress of the osseous state in the short bones. 202
II. State of the Osseous System after its Growth.
Increase in thickness.—Composition and decomposition after the termination of growth in thickness.—Experiments.—State of the bones in old age. 203
III. Peculiar Phenomena of the Development of the Callus.
1st. Fleshy granulations.—2d. Adhesions of these granulations.—3d. Exhalation of gelatine and then of phosphate of lime. 206
IV. Peculiar Phenomena of the Development of the Teeth.
Organization of the teeth.—Hard portion of the teeth.—Enamel.—Experiment which distinguishes it from bone.—Its thickness.—Its nature.—Reflections upon its organization.—Osseous portion.—Its form.—Cavity of the tooth. 209
Soft portion of the tooth.—Its spongy nature.—Its acute sensibility.—Remarks upon its different sympathies. 211
First dentition considered before cutting.—Follicle.—Membrane of this follicle analogous to the serous membranes.—Albuminous nature of the fluid which lubricates it.—Mode of development of the osseous tooth upon the follicle.—Number of the first teeth. 213
First dentition considered at the period of cutting.—Mode of cutting.—Accidents.—Their causes. 216
Second dentition considered before cutting.—Formation of the second follicle. 217
Second dentition considered at the period of cutting.—Fall of the first teeth.—Appearance of the second.
Phenomena subsequent to the cutting of the second teeth.—Growth in length and thickness.—Fall of the teeth earlier than the death of the bones.—Why.—State of the jaws after the fall of the teeth. 219
V. Particular Phenomena of the Development of the Sesamoid Bones.
General arrangement of the sesamoid bones.—Situation.—Forms. 221
Fibro-cartilaginous state.—Osseous state.—Phenomena of the patella.—Use of the sesamoid bones. 222
MEDULLARY SYSTEM.
Division of this system. 225
ARTICLE FIRST.
MEDULLARY SYSTEM OF THE FLAT AND SHORT BONES, AND THE EXTREMITIES OF THE LONG ONES.
I. Origin and Conformation.
It is an expansion of the vessels of the second order. 225
II. Organization.
There is no medullary membrane.—Vascular interlacing. 226
III. Properties.
There are only organic ones.—Experiments. 227
IV. Development.
There is no medullary oil in infancy.—Proofs.—Experiments. 227
ARTICLE SECOND.
MEDULLARY SYSTEM OF THE MIDDLE OF THE LONG BONES.
I. Conformation.
It is like the cellular. 229
II. Organization.
The medullary membrane is not an expansion of the periosteum.—Its vessels. 230
III. Properties.
Properties of texture.—Vital properties.—Animal sensibility.—Vitality more active than in the bones. 231
IV. Development.
How the medullary membrane is formed.—The marrow of the infant is wholly different from that of the adult.—Proofs. 233
Functions.—The marrow is exhaled.—Its alterations.—Its relations with the nutrition of the bone.—Necrosis.—The marrow is foreign to the synovia. 234
CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
What must be understood by cartilage. 237
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE FORMS OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. Forms of the Cartilages of the Moveable Articulations.
Internal and external surfaces.—Relations of the two corresponding cartilages.—Peculiar characters of these cartilages in each kind of moveable articulations. 238
II. Forms of the Cartilages of the Immoveable Articulations. 241
III. Forms of the Cartilages of the Cavities. 242
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to the Cartilaginous System.
Fibres.—Remarkable resistance of the cartilaginous texture to putrefaction, maceration, &c.—Stewing and desiccation of this texture.—Its various alterations. 243
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Cartilaginous Texture.
Cellular texture.—Means of seeing it.—Absence of blood vessels.—White vessels.—Their colour in jaundice. 245
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. Physical Properties.
Elasticity.—It appears to be owing to the superabundance of gelatine.—Proofs. 247
II. Properties of Texture.
They are very obscure. 248
III. Vital Properties.
They are inconsiderable, as well as the sympathies. 249
Character of the Vital Properties.—All the phenomena over which they preside have a chronic progress.—General observations upon the reunion of the parts. 250
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. State of the Cartilaginous System in the First Age.
Predominance of gelatine in the early periods.—Property which the cartilages then have of becoming red by maceration.—Vascular layers between the cartilage and the bone.—Cause which limits ossification in the cartilage.—Development of the cartilages of the cavities. 252
II. State of the Cartilaginous System in the after Ages.
Different character which the gelatine assumes.—Ossification of the cartilages in old age.—Those of the cavities are the soonest ossified. 255
III. Preternatural Development of the Cartilaginous System.
Tendency of the membrane of the spleen to become the seat of it.—Preternatural cartilages of the articulations. 257
FIBROUS SYSTEM.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE FORMS AND DIVISIONS OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM.
The fibrous forms are either membranous or in fasciæ. 259
I. Of the Fibrous Organs of a Membranous Form.
Fibrous membranes.—Fibrous capsules.—Fibrous sheaths.—Aponeuroses. 260
II. Of the Fibrous Organs in the form of Fasciæ.
1st. Tendons.—2d. Ligaments. 262
III. Table of the Fibrous System.
Analogy of the different organs of this system.—The periosteum is the common centre of these organs. 262
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM.
I. Of the Texture peculiar to the Organization of the Fibrous System.
Peculiar nature of the fibrous texture.—Its extreme resistance.—Phenomena of this resistance.—It can be overcome.—Difference of the fibrous and muscular textures.—Experiments upon the fibrous texture subjected to maceration, ebullition, putrefaction, the action of the acids, the digestive juices, &c. 264
II. Of the Common Parts which enter into the Organization of the Fibrous System.
Cellular texture.—Blood vessels.—Their varieties according to the organs. 270
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM.
I. Physical Properties.
II. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—Peculiar law to which it is subjected there. Contractility.—It is almost nothing.—When it is manifested. 272
III. Vital Properties.
Animal sensibility.—Singular mode of putting it in action by distension.—Consequence of this peculiar phenomenon to the fibrous texture. 274
Character of the vital properties.—The vital activity is more evident in this system than in the preceding.—It appears that the fibrous texture does not suppurate. 277
Sympathies.—Examples of those of the animal and the organic properties. 279
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM.
I. State of the Fibrous System in the First Age.
The fibres are wanting in most of the fibrous organs of the fœtus.—Softness of these organs at this age.—Varieties of development.—Remarks upon rheumatism. 281
II. State of the Fibrous System in the After Ages.
Phenomena of the adult.—General stiffness in old age. 283
III. Preternatural Development of the Fibrous System.
Various tumours exhibit fibres analogous to those of this system. 284
ARTICLE FIFTH.
OF THE FIBROUS MEMBRANES IN GENERAL.
I. Forms of the Fibrous Membranes.
Their double surface.—These membranes are like moulds of their respective organs.—Researches respecting that of the corpus cavernosum.—Experiments which show that it differs essentially from the subjacent spongy texture.—Other researches upon that of the testicle. 285
II. Organization of the Fibrous Membranes. 288
III. Of the Periosteum. Of its Form.
Its two surfaces.—Their adhesion to the bones. 289
Organization of the periosteum.—Preternatural development of its fibres in elephantiasis.—Its connexions with the fibrous bodies in infancy. 291
Development of the periosteum.
Functions of the Periosteum.—In what way it assists ossification.—It relates as much to the fibrous organs as to the bones. 292
IV. Perichondrium.
Experiments upon this membrane. 294
ARTICLE SIXTH.
OF THE FIBROUS CAPSULES.
I. Forms of the Fibrous Capsules.
They are very few.—Arrangement of the two principal ones.—Canal between them and the synovial capsule. 295
II. Functions of the Fibrous Capsules. 296
ARTICLE SEVENTH.
OF THE FIBROUS SHEATHS.
Their division. 297
I. Partial Fibrous Sheaths.
Their form.—Their arrangement.—Why the flexor tendons are alone provided with them. 297
II. General Fibrous Sheaths. 299
ARTICLE EIGHTH.
OF THE APONEUROSES.
I. Of the Aponeuroses for Covering.
Their division. 299
Aponeuroses for general covering. 300
Forms.—They are accommodated to the extremities, &c. ib.
Tensor muscles.—Organization.—Examples of the tensor muscles.—Their uses relative to the aponeuroses.—Analogy with the tendons and difference from them.—Arrangement of the fibres. 301
Functions. 302
Aponeuroses for partial covering.—Examples.—General uses of these aponeuroses. 303
II. Of the Aponeuroses of Insertion.
Aponeuroses of insertion with a broad surface.—Their origin.—Their uses.—The identity of their nature with that of the tendons.—Experiments. 304
Aponeuroses of insertion in the form of an arch.—They are rare.—They exist where vessels pass through.—They do not compress them. 305
Aponeuroses of insertion with separate fibres. 306
ARTICLE NINTH.
OF THE TENDONS.
I. Form of the Tendons.
Relation of the uses with the forms.—Union with the fleshy fibres. 307
II. Organization of the Tendons.
Method of seeing their fibres advantageously.—They appear to be destitute of blood vessels.—Their tendency to be penetrated with the phosphate of lime. 309
ARTICLE TENTH.
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
I. Ligaments with, Regular Fasciæ.
General arrangement. 311
II. Ligaments with Irregular Fasciæ. 312
FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
Organs which compose it. 315
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE FORMS OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
Division into three classes of the organs of this system.—Characters of each class. 315
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to the Organization of the Fibro-Cartilaginous System.
It arises, 1st, from a fibrous substance; 2d, from a cartilaginous one.—It owes its resistance to the first and its elasticity to the second.—Action of caloric, air and water upon the fibro-cartilaginous texture.—It reddens by maceration.—Absence of the perichondrium upon most of the fibro-cartilages. 317
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Fibro-Cartilaginous System. 320
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. Physical Properties.
Elasticity and suppleness united. 320
II. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—It is quite evident in it.—Contractility.—Difference from elasticity. 321
III. Vital Properties.
They are inconsiderable.—Influence of the obscurity of these forces upon the properties of the fibro-cartilages. 322
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. State of this System in the First Age.
Mode of development of the three classes. 323
II. State of this System in the after Ages.
General rigidity of these organs.—Consequences.—Ossification of the fibro-cartilages rare. 325
MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
Difference between the muscles of the two lives.—Observations upon those of animal life. 327
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE FORMS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
Division of these muscles into long, broad and short. 327
I. Forms of the Long Muscles.
Place which they occupy.—Their division.—Their separation and reunion.—Peculiar forms of the long muscles of the spine. 328
II. Forms of the Broad Muscles.
Where they are situated.—Thickness.—Peculiar forms of the broad pectoral muscles. 330
III. Forms of the Short Muscles.
Where they are found.—Their arrangement.—Remarks upon the three species of muscles. 331
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. Texture peculiar to this Organization.
Arrangement of this texture into fasciculi.—Its division into fibres.—Length of the fleshy fibres compared with that of the muscle.—Their direction.—Their figure.—Their softness.—Ease of their rupture in the dead body.—Difficulty in the living. 332
Composition of the muscular texture.—Action of the air in desiccation and putrefaction.—Action of cold water.—Maceration and its products.—Ease with which the colouring substance is removed.—Analogy of the remaining texture with the fibrin of the blood.—Relation of the forces with this texture.—Action of boiling water.—Some peculiar phenomena of common boiled flesh.—Roasting of the fleshy texture.—Singular affinity of the digestive juices to this sort of texture.—General observations.—Influence of sex and the genital organs upon the fleshy texture. 336
II. Parts common to the Organization of this System.
Cellular texture.—Manner in which it envelops the fibres.—Its uses for muscular motion.—Experiment.—Fatty muscles. 343
Blood vessels.—Arteries.—Of the blood of the muscles.—Of their colour.—Free and combined state of the colouring substance.—Veins.—Remarks upon the injection of them. 346
Nerves.—There are hardly any but those of animal life.—Their difference in the extensors and the flexors.—Manner in which the nerves penetrate the muscles. 348
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. Properties of Texture. Extensibility.
This property is continually in action.—It is in proportion to the length of the fibres.—Its exercise in diseases. 350
Contractility of texture.—Phenomena of the antagonists.—Distinction in these phenomena of that which belongs to the vital properties from that which belongs to those of texture.—Of the contractility of texture in diseases.—Extent and quickness of the contractions.—They continue after death.—Essential differences between the contractility of texture and horny hardening. Their parallel. 352
II. Vital Properties.
Properties of animal life.—Sensibility.—Most of the ordinary agents do not develop it.—It is put into action by repeated contractions.—Of the sensation of lassitude.—Sensibility of the muscles in their affections. 359
Animal Contractility.—It should be considered in three relations. 361
Animal contractility considered in the brain.—The principle of this property exists in this organ.—Proofs drawn from observation.—Proofs derived from diseases.—Proofs borrowed from experiments upon animals.—Cases in which the brain is foreign to the muscles. 362
Animal contractility considered in the nerves.—Influence of the spinal marrow upon this property.—Observations and experiments.—Influence of the nerves.—Observations and experiments.—All the nerves do not transmit equally the different irradiations of the brain.—Direction of the propagation of the nervous influence. 367
Animal contractility considered in the muscles.—Necessary conditions in the muscle for it to contract.—Obstacles to contraction.—Various experiments. 374
Causes which bring into action animal contractility.—Division of these causes.—Of the will.—Of the involuntary causes.—Direct excitement.—Sympathetic excitement.—Influence of the passions.—Remarks upon the motion of the fœtus. 374
Duration of the animal contractility after death.—Various experiments.—Consequences relative to respiration.—Variety of the duration of this property.—How it is extinguished. 379
Organic Properties.—Organic sensibility and insensible organic contractility.—Sensible organic contractility.—Various experiments upon this last property.—Phenomena of irritations.—In order to study this contractility the animal contractility must be destroyed.—How this is done.—Various modes of contraction. 382
Sympathies.—The animal sensibility is the property especially brought into action by them.—General Remarks.—Sympathies of animal sensibility.—The organic properties are rarely brought into action. 386
Characters of the vital properties.—Different remarks upon these characters. 388
ARTICLE FOURTH.
PHENOMENA OF THE ACTION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. Force of the Muscular Contraction.
Difference according as it is put into action by stimuli or by the cerebral influence.—Experiments.—Influence of muscular organization upon contraction.—The laws of nature the reverse of those of mechanics in the production of motions.—Multiplication of forces.—Uncertainty of calculations upon this point. 390
II. Quickness of the Contractions.
Varieties according as the contractions are, 1st, from stimuli; 2d, from nervous action.—Different degrees of quickness in different individuals.—Influence of habit upon this degree. 395
III. Duration of the Contractions. 397
IV. State of the Muscles in Contraction.
Different phenomena which they then experience.—Essential remark upon the different modes of contraction. 398
V. Motions imparted by the Muscles.
Simple Motions.—1st. In the muscles with a straight direction.—How we determine the uses of these muscles.—2d. In the muscles with a reflected direction.—3d. In those with a circular direction. 400
Compound Motions.—Almost every motion is compound.—How.—Different examples of compound motions.—Antagonist muscles. 403
VI. Phenomena of the Relaxation of the Muscles.
They are opposite to the preceding. 406
ARTICLE FIFTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
It contains but little blood.—Slight contractility at this age.—Influence upon these phenomena, of the blood which then penetrates the muscles.—These organs are then slender and weak. 407
II. State of this System during Growth.
Sudden effect of the red blood which penetrates the muscles, and of the other irritations which are connected with it.—Colour of the Muscles.—Period of the brightest colour.—Varieties of the action of reagents on the fleshy texture of young animals. 410
III. State of this System after Growth.
The thickness constantly increases.—The external forms are more evident.—Colour in the adult.—Innumerable variety. 413
IV. State of this System in Old Age.
Increase of density.—Diminution of cohesion.—Phenomena of the vacillation of the muscles.—Atrophous muscles. 416
V. State of the System at Death.
Relaxation or stiffness of the muscles. 419
END OF CONTENTS TO VOL. II.
VOLUME THIRD. MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
FORMS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.
PAGE
Curved direction of the fibres.—They do not arise from the fibrous system.—Varieties of the muscular forms, according to the organs. 4
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.
General difference of organization from the preceding muscles. 5
I. Peculiar Texture.
General arrangement of the muscular fibre.—Analogy with the preceding and difference. 6
II. Common Parts.
Cellular Texture.—Blood vessels.—Nerves of the ganglions and of the brain.—Proportion of each class. 8
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.
I. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—Particular character of this property in the organic muscles.—In aneurisms of the heart and in pregnancy, it is not the extensibility that is brought into action.—Remarks upon this subject. 10
Contractility.—It is in proportion to extensibility.—The substances contained in the hollow muscles are their antagonists.—Remarks. 14
II. Vital Properties.
Sensibility.—Of the lassitude of the organic muscles.—Remarks upon hunger. 15
Animal Contractility.—It is nothing in these muscles.—Different, experiments.—Observations.—Of the muscles in part voluntary and in part organic.—Experiments.—Remarks upon the bladder, rectum, &c.—Absence of the nervous influence upon the organic muscles. 17
Organic Properties.—General Remarks. 24
Of sensible organic contractility considered under the relation of the stimuli. 25
Natural stimuli.—Different observations.—Remarks upon the fluids and solids.—Influence of the quality and quantity of the fluids upon the hollow muscles. ib.
Artificial stimuli.—Action of these stimuli.—Different modes of action.—Limits of the horny hardening and vital contraction. 28
Of sensible organic contractility, considered in relation to the organs. 31
First variety. Diversity of the muscular texture.—Each muscle is particularly in relation with some determinate substance.—Application of this principle to the natural and foreign fluids. ib.
Second variety. Age.—Vivacity of the contractility in infancy.—Consequences.—Opposite phenomenon in old age. 33
Third Variety. Temperament.—Difference of individuals in regard to organic muscular force.—This force is not always in relation to the animal muscular force.—It cannot be increased like it by habit. 34
Fourth Variety. Sex. 35
Fifth Variety. Season and climate. 36
Sensible organic contractility considered in relation to the action of stimulants upon the organs.—The constant existence of an intermediate organ for this action.—Nature of this intermediate organ. ib.
Sensible organic contractility considered in relation to its duration after death.—Difference of this duration according to the kind of death.—Remarks. 38
Sympathies.—Sympathies of the heart.—Sympathies of the stomach.—Remarks upon bilious vomitings.—General observations.—Sympathies of the intestines, the bladder, &c. 40
Character of the vital properties.—Vital energy very considerable in this system.—Its affections act upon its predominant vital force.—The infrequency of the affections which suppose a derangement of the organic properties. 44
ARTICLE FOURTH.
PHENOMENA OF THE ACTION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.
I. Force of Contractions.
Difference from the force of contraction of the preceding system.—It is greater in the vital phenomena than in experiments.—Inaccuracy of calculations. 46
II. Quickness of the Contractions.
In experiments.—During life.—Comparison with the quickness of the preceding muscles. 49
III. Duration of the Contractions. 50
IV. State of the Muscles in Contraction.
Difference in this respect between the heart and the gastric muscles. ib.
V. Motions imparted by the Organic Muscles. 51
VI. Phenomena of the Relaxation of the Organic Muscles.
Differences of this relaxation from the active dilatation of the muscles.—Proofs of the phenomena of this dilatation. 52
ARTICLE FIFTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
Predominance of the heart.—State of the other muscles.—Weakness of the organic contractility at this age. 55
II. State of the Organic Muscular System during Growth.
General increase of action at birth.—Of the growth in thickness and of that in length.—Their differences. 58
III. State of the Organic Muscular System after Growth. 61
IV. State of the Organic Muscular System in Old Age.
This system outlives, if we may so say, the preceding.—Phenomenon resulting from its weakness. 62
MUCOUS SYSTEM.
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE DIVISIONS AND FORMS OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.
I. Of the two general Mucous Membranes, the Gastro-pulmonary and the Genito-urinary.
Difference of these two membranes.—Their relation. 66
II. Adhering Surface of the Mucous Membranes.
Its relations.—It is everywhere subjacent to the muscles.—Sub-mucous texture.—Experiments. 69
III. Free surface of the Mucous Membranes.
Of the folds it exhibits.—1st. Of those which comprehend all the membranes.—2d. Of those which are permanent upon the mucous surface.—3d. Of those which are owing to a state of vacuity of the hollow organs.—Different experiments.—The extent of the mucous surfaces is always nearly the same, whatever may be the state of their organs.—Relation of their free surface with external bodies.—Their sensibility is accommodated to this relation.—The term foreign body is merely comparative. 70
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to this Organization.
What it presents for consideration.
Mucous Corion.—Its variable thickness.—Mucous nature of the membrane of the ear.—Pathological consequences.—Softness of the mucous texture.—Action of the air, water, caloric, the acids and the digestive juices upon the mucous texture. 76
Mucous papillæ.—Their varieties of form.—Their nervous nature.—Proofs of this nervous nature.—Their influence upon the sensibility of the mucous organs. 83
II. Common Parts.
Of the mucous glands and the fluids which they secrete.—Situation.—Forms.—Size.—Texture. 86
Mucous fluids.—Physical properties.—Action of different agents upon them.—Their functions.—Parts in which they are most abundant and those in which they are less so.—Susceptibility of being increased by any irritation made upon their excretories.—Consequences.—Remarks upon the excitement of the mucous surfaces in diseases.—Uses of the mucous membranes in relation to the habitual evacuation of their fluids.—General remarks upon the secreted fluids.—Singular sensation arising from the continuance of the mucous fluids upon their respective surfaces. 88
Blood vessels.—Their varieties of proportion.—Their superficial position.—Consequence.—Redness of the mucous system.—It often loses it.—Experiments upon the state of the mucous vessels in the fulness and vacuity of their hollow organs.—Other experiments upon the influence of the gases upon the colour of the mucous system.—Causes of its redness.—Colouring substance combined and free. 96
Exhalants.—Is there exhalation upon the mucous system?—Pulmonary exhalation.—A great part of the pulmonary perspiration arises from the solution of the mucous juices.—Other mucous exhalations.—Hemorrhages. 105
Absorbents.—Proofs of the mucous absorption.—Irregularity of this absorption.—Cause of this irregularity. 107
Nerves.—Those of the brain.—Those of the ganglions.—Their respective distribution upon this system. 108
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.
I. Properties of Texture.
They are less than they at first seem to be.—They are however real.—Their variety.—The mucous ducts are not obliterated by the contractility of texture when they are empty. 109
II. Vital properties.
Properties of animal life.—Acute sensibility of the mucous system.—Influence of habit upon this property.—Consequences of this remark.—Mucous sensibility in inflammations. 111
Properties of organic life.—Organic sensibility and insensible contractility are very evident here.—Why.—Consequences as it respects diseases.—Varieties of these properties.-Species of sensible organic contractility in the mucous texture. 114
Sympathies.—How we shall divide them. 117
Active Sympathies.—Example of these sympathies for each vital property. 118
Passive Sympathies.—The predominant ones are those of insensible organic contractility.—Why. 120
Character of the vital properties.—Vital activity of this system.—Its varieties.—Consequences as it regards diseases.—Remarks upon the stomachic sympathies. 123
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.
I. State of the Mucous System in the First Age.
It follows the state of the organs to which it belongs.—Delicacy of the papillæ.—The mucous redness is then deeper.—Sudden change at birth.—Why.—Phenomenon of puberty. 125
II. State of the Mucous System in the After Ages.
Its phenomena in the adult.—Its phenomena in old age. 129
SEROUS SYSTEM.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE EXTENT, FORMS AND FLUIDS OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM.
General arrangement of its membranes.—Of the serous surface considered in general.—Every serous membrane is a sac without an opening. 131
I. Free Surface of the Serous Membranes.
It is smooth and polished.—This attribute is foreign to compression.—This surface insulates the organs to which the serous surfaces belong.—Its influence upon the motion of these organs.—Adhesions of the serous surfaces.—Their division. 134
II. Adhering Surface of the Serous System.
Means of union.—The serous membranes often change relations with their organs.—This is owing to the laxity of the adhesions.—Adhesions more close. 140
III. Serous Fluids.
Their quantity.—Varieties of this quantity.—Experiments.—Morbid varieties.—Nature of these fluids. 142
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM.
The serous membranes have but one layer.—Its colour.—Its thickness. 144
I. Cellular nature of the Serous Texture.
Proofs of this cellular nature.—Experiments by maceration, ebullition, desiccation, stewing and putrefaction.—Differences between the cellular and serous textures. 145
II. Parts common to the organization of the Serous System.
Exhalants.—Various proofs of serous exhalation. 149
Absorbents.—Proofs of serous absorption.—Experiments.—Mode of origin of the absorbents. 150
Blood vessels.—The serous membranes have but very few of them.—Those which are subjacent do not belong to them.—Proofs. 151
III. Varieties of Organization of the Serous System.
Different examples of these varieties.—Consequences in regard to diseases.—Remarks upon the pericardium.—Common characters. 153
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM.
I. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—It is less than it at first seems to be.—Why.—Use of the folds of the serous membranes.—Of their displacement.—Pain from these displacements in inflammation. 155
Contractility.—Less than it appears to be.—It is however real. 156
II. Vital Properties.
They enjoy but little animal sensibility.—Why.—Experiments.—The organic properties are very sensible.—Consequences. 157
Sympathies.—Various examples.—Remarks upon sympathetic exhalations.—Remark upon the serum of dead bodies. 158
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM.
I. State of this System in the First Age.
Extreme tenuity of the surfaces.—Quantity of the fluids.—Quality.—Changes at birth.—Experiments. 161
II. State of the Serous System in the After Ages.
The serous surfaces obey the laws of their respective organs.—Increased density in old age.—Ossification rare. 162
III. Preternatural Development of the Serous System.
Various observations. 164
SYNOVIAL SYSTEM.
Points of resemblance between this system and the preceding.—Its division. 165
ARTICLE FIRST.
ARTICULAR SYNOVIAL SYSTEM.
I. How the Synovia is separated from the mass of blood.
There are three ways in which fluids may be separated from the blood.
Is the Synovia transmitted by secretion to the articular surfaces?—Negative proofs.—Of the pretended synovial glands.—Experiments.
Is the Synovia transmitted by transudation to the articular surfaces?—Negative proofs.—Another opinion.
Is the Synovia transmitted by exhalation to the articular surfaces?—Positive proofs.—Analogy between the exhaled fluids and the synovia.—Consequences. 167
II. Remarks upon the Synovia.
Its quantity.—It varies a little.—Rare alterations of this fluid.—Its difference from the serous fluids. 173
III. Of the Synovial Membranes.
Forms.—They represent sacs without an opening.—Difference from the fibrous capsules.—These capsules are wanting in the greatest number of articulations.—Experiments.—Proofs of the synovial membrane where it adheres. 175
Organization.—Analogy with the serous surfaces.—Structure of the pretended synovial glands. 180
Properties.—Properties of texture.—Vital properties.—Experiments.—The synovial system is foreign to most diseases. 182
Functions.—They are foreign to the solidity of the articulation.—They have relation only to the synovia. 183
Natural Development.—State of the synovial membrane in infancy, adult and old age. 184
Preternatural Development.—Remarks upon this development. 185
ARTICLE SECOND.
SYNOVIAL SYSTEM OF THE TENDONS.
It is often confounded with the preceding. 186
Forms; relations; synovial fluid.—Forms of sacs without an opening.—Varieties of these forms.—Smooth and adhering surface.—Relation with the tendon.—Preternatural increase of the fluid. 186
Organization, properties, development.—Their phenomena are analogous to those of the preceding system.—Remarks upon the affections of this kind of synovial membranes. 189
GLANDULAR SYSTEM.
General observations.—What a gland is. 193
ARTICLE FIRST.
SITUATION, FORMS, DIVISION, &c. OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM.
Sub-cutaneous and deep position.—Relation of the position of the glands with their excretion.—Varieties of the glandular forms.—Distinction of these varieties.—External surface of the glands. 194
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to the Organization of this System.
The fibrous arrangement is foreign to the glands.—There is but little resistance in the glandular texture.—Triple arrangement of this texture.—Uncertainty of the researches upon its nature.—Different experiments upon this texture.—Desiccation.—Peculiar effect of stewing.—Roasting.—Maceration.—Action of the acids, gastric juice, &c. 198
Of the excretories, their origin, divisions, &c. of the glandular reservoirs.—Origin.—Course.—Division of the glands into three classes, in regard to the termination of their excretories.—Of the reservoirs.—What supplies their place when they are wanting.—Motion of the fluids in the excretories. 204
Size, direction and termination of the excretories.—All the excretories open upon the mucous or cutaneous systems.—Observations upon the intestinal canal. 206
Remarks upon the secreted fluids.—They can re-enter the circulation.—Various experiments on this subject.—Consequences. 208
Structure of the excretories.—Internal membrane.—External texture. 213
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Glandular System.
Cellular Texture.—Division of the glands into two classes, in regard to this texture.—Serum and fat of this texture.—Fatty livers. 214
Blood vessels.—Different ways in which they enter the glands, according as they are or are not surrounded with membranes.—Course of the arteries in the glands.—Veins.—They pour their blood into the general black blood.—Reflux from the heart to the glands. 216
Of the blood of the glands.—Division of the glands into three classes, as it regards the fluid which penetrates them.—Great quantity of blood contained in the liver and the kidney.—Variety as it respects secretion. 219
Nerves.—Of those of the ganglions and of the cerebral ones.—Their proportion.—How they enter the glands.—Secretion is independent of nervous influence. 221
Exhalants and absorbents. 223
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM.
I. Properties of Texture.
They are inconsiderable.—Proofs.—New remarks upon the reflux of the black blood in the glands. 224
II. Vital Properties.
Properties of animal life.—Experiments upon animal sensibility.—Varieties of the results. 226
Properties of organic life.—The insensible contractility and the corresponding sensibility are the predominant ones.—Their influence upon secretion.—Varieties of the secreted fluids.—Organic affections of the glands.—Remarks. 227
Sympathies. 230
Passive sympathies.—Various examples.—Sympathies the causes of which act at the extremity of the excretories.—Influence of the passive sympathies of the glands in diseases.—Remark upon that of each gland.
Active Sympathies.—Various remarks.
Characters of the vital properties. 235
First character.—Life peculiar to each gland.—Proofs of this peculiar life.—Of its influence in a state of health and disease.
Second character.—Remission of the glandular life.—The glands have a species of sleep.—Various examples. 238
Third character.—The glandular life is never simultaneously raised in the whole system.—Application of this remark to the digestive order.—Advantage of the artificial excitement of the glands in diseases. 239
Fourth character.—Influence of climate and season upon the glandular life.—The sweat and many secreted fluids are opposite to each other in this respect. 241
Fifth character.—Influence of sex upon the glandular life. 242
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
The glands are very conspicuous at this age.—Yet the secretions are not great. 243
II. State of this System during Growth.
Suddenly increased activity at birth.—Yet it is not the glandular system which predominates in the first age.—Remarks upon its diseases.—The mucous and lachrymal glands are the most frequently in action in infancy. 244
III. State of this System after Growth.
Period of puberty.—Its influence upon the glands.—Influence of the glands of digestion at the adult age. 247
IV. State of this System in old Age.
Of the change in the texture of the glands from the effect of age.—Many glands still secrete much fluid in old age.—Relation of this phenomenon with nutrition. 249
DERMOID SYSTEM.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
FORMS OF THE DERMOID SYSTEM.
I. External Surface of the Dermoid System.
Various folds of this surface.—Their different nature. 254
II. Internal Surface of the Dermoid System.
Its relations.—Absence of the fleshy pannicle in man.—Consequences. 256
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE DERMOID SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to the Organization.
Chorion.—Its thickness in the different regions.—Its structure.—Method of seeing it.—Variety of this structure according to the regions.—Small spaces of the chorion.—Fibres.—Their nature.—It approximates that of the fibrous texture.—Yet it differs from it.—The chorion is foreign to the functions of the skin relative to animal and organic life. 258
Of the reticular body.—Idea that has been formed of it.—What it is.—Vascular net-work.—Colouring substance.—Analogy among the diversity of races.—How this diversity should be considered.—Of the cases in which the blood enters the reticular body.—Singular property of the vessels of the face of receiving more than the others.—Cause of this phenomenon.—Triple means of expression of the passions.—Relation between the tendency of the facial capillary system to receive blood and diseases.—Double state of the reticular body.—Phenomena at the instant of death.—Experiments. 266
Papillæ.—Situations.—The cutaneous prominences must not be taken for them.—Experiments to prove the nature of these prominences.—Their varieties.—Forms and nervous structure of the papillæ. 273
Action of different bodies upon the dermoid texture. 276
Action of light.—Men whiten like plants.—Examples. ib.
Action of caloric.—Effects which it produces on the skin during life according to its different degrees.—Effect of cold.—General remarks upon gangrene and antiseptics.—False opinions of authors. 277
Action of the air.—Remarks upon the influence of this fluid upon the evaporation of the transpiration.—It is foreign to this function itself.—Desiccation of the skin by the air.—Its putrefaction. 282
Action of water.—General uses of baths.—Their use is natural.—Maceration of the skin.—Pulpy state.—Stewing of the skin.—Mode of horny hardening.—Vesicles that arise the instant it takes place.—Other phenomena of stewing. 285
Action of the acids, alkalies, and other substances.—Various experiments with reagents.—Remarks. 290
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Dermoid System.
Cellular texture.—Manner in which it is distributed.—Remarks upon biles.—Sometimes it is wholly destroyed.—Appearance which the skin then has.—Remarks upon leucophlegmasia. 291
Blood vessels.—Manner in which they are distributed.—Dilatation of the veins in some cases. 293
Nerves.—Mode of their distribution. 294
Absorbents.—Proofs of cutaneous absorption.—Absorption of virus.—Table of this absorption.—Varieties it experiences.—Absorption of medicines.—Experiments.—Character of irregularity of the cutaneous absorptions.—To what this character is owing.—Influence of weakness on this absorption. 294
Exhalants.—Mode of distribution.—Cutaneous exhalations.—Uncertainty of calculations upon this point.—Relation of this exhalation with the secretions.—Relation with the pulmonary exhalation.—Experiment upon this last exhalation.—Remarks upon the causes of many coughs.—Defect of evaporation of the fluid deposited upon the bronchia.—The cutaneous exhalants vary.—Are they under the nervous influence?—This does not appear probable. 299
Sebaceous Glands.—Oily fluid of the skin.—Its quantity.—Its varieties.—Its sources.—We have but few data as it regards the sebaceous glands. 305
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE DERMOID SYSTEM.
I. Properties of Texture.
They are very evident.—They are often less than they seem to be.—Phenomena of extensibility and contractility. 308
II. Vital Properties.
Properties of animal life.—Sensibility.—Of the feeling.—Of the touch.—Its characters.—Its differences from the other senses.—Seat of cutaneous sensibility.—The mode.—Pain peculiar to the skin.—Influence of habit upon this sensibility.—Various reflections.—Diminution of the cutaneous sensibility. 311
Properties of organic life.—They are especially organic sensibility and insensible contractility.—Phenomena over which they preside.—Division of cutaneous diseases.—Excitants of the cutaneous organic sensibility.—Sensible organic contractility is but slightly apparent. 318
Sympathies.—Passive Sympathies.—Different examples and remarks upon the sympathies of heat.—General remarks upon the sensations of heat and cold.—Influence of sympathies upon the sweat. 322
Active Sympathies.—These sympathies are relative to each of the classes of diseases pointed out above.—Various examples.—General remarks. 326
Characters of the vital properties.—First character.—The cutaneous life varies in each region.—Varieties of animal sensibility.—Varieties in the organic properties. 331
Second character.—Intermission in one relation, continuity in another.—The peculiar life of the skin is intermittent as it respects the functions of relation.—Its continuity as it respects its organic functions. 332
Third character.—Influence of sex. 333
Fourth character.—Influence of temperament. 334
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DERMOID SYSTEM.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
A gluey covering in the first periods.—Absence of certain wrinkles in the fœtus.—Laxity of adhesion.—State of the vital properties of the skin of the fœtus.—Its functions at this age. 335
II. State of this System during Growth.
Sudden revolution at birth.—Entrance of the red blood into the skin.—Consequences.—State of the cutaneous vital forces in infancy.—State of the cutaneous texture. 337
III. State of the Dermoid System after Growth.
Increasing proportion of the fibrous substance, and decreasing proportion of the gelatinous.—Remark upon the diseases and affections of the skin. 341
IV. State of the Dermoid System in Old Age.
State of the cutaneous texture.—Phenomena which arise from it.—State of the vital forces.—State of the functions. 344
EPIDERMOID SYSTEM.
General Observations.—Division. 349
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE EXTERNAL EPIDERMIS.
I. Forms, Relations with the Dermis, &c.
Wrinkles.—Pores.—Adhesion to the skin.—Means of destroying this adhesion.—Arrangement. 350
II. Organization, Composition, &c. Uniform thickness in most parts.—Remarkable thickness on the foot and the hand.—Consequences of this thickness.—Experiments upon the colour of negroes.—Epidermoid texture.—Its peculiar nature.—Action of the air, water, caloric, the acids, the alkalies, &c. upon the epidermoid texture. 353
III. Properties.
Extensibility.—The animal properties are foreign to the epidermis.—It appears to be destitute also of organic properties.—Continual destruction of the epidermis.—Its reproduction when it is removed. 360
IV. Development.
State of the epidermis in the fœtus, the adult and the old person. 364
ARTICLE SECOND.
INTERNAL EPIDERMIS. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS UPON THIS EPIDERMIS.
I. Epidermis of the origin of the Mucous Surfaces.
It is very distinct.—Proofs of its existence.—Its reproduction.—Its nature. 366
II. Epidermis of the deep Surfaces.
Uncertainty of its existence.—Experiments.—Membranes that are sometimes thrown off.—It appears that it is not the epidermis. 367
ARTICLE THIRD.
OF THE NAILS.
I. Form, Extent, Relations, &c.
Of the habit of cutting the nails.—Anterior, middle and posterior portions of the nail.—Superior and inferior surfaces.—Of the texture which supports the nail. 369
II. Organization, Properties, &c.
Of the laminæ which form the nails.—Of their arrangement.—Their analogy with the epidermis.—Obscurity of the vital properties.—Facility with which the nails, epidermis, &c. are coloured. 373
Development.—State of the nails in the fœtus, the adult, and the old person. 376
PILOUS SYSTEM.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
EXAMINATION OF THE PILOUS SYSTEM IN THE DIFFERENT REGIONS.
I. Pilous System of the Head.
General observations. 379
Of the Hair.—Its length, situation, limits, influence on physiognomy, variety according to sex, uses, thickness, fundamental colours, shades, and influence on temperament. 381
Eyebrows.—Their general arrangement.—Their motions. 386
Eyelashes.—Their form, arrangement, &c. 387
Beard.—It is the attribute of the male.—Its relations with strength.—Of our habits in relation to the beard. 388
II. Of the Pilous System of the Trunk.
Its varieties according to the regions. 390
III. Pilous System of the Extremities.
Its varieties.—It is wanting on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. ib.
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE PILOUS SYSTEM.
I. Origin of the Hairs.
Of the membranous canal which encloses this origin.—Relation of the hair with this canal.—Organization of this.—Swelling of the hair and its origin.—Its course to the exterior. 391
II. External Covering of the Hairs.
Analogy of this covering with the epidermis.—Its differences.—Action of the different agents upon this covering.—Its external arrangement. 394
III. Internal Substance of the Hairs.
We are ignorant of its nature.—Capillaries of the hairs of the head.—Their colouring substance.—The internal substance of the hairs of the head is essentially subjected to the influence of the vital phenomena.—Proof of this assertion.—This distinguishes it from the external covering. 396
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE PILOUS SYSTEM.
It undergoes but little horny hardening.—Of curling.—The properties of texture slightly marked.—The animal ones are nothing.—The organic are a little more evident. 401
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PILOUS SYSTEM.
I. State of this System in the First Age.
Of the down of the fœtus.—The growth of the hairs is then the reverse of that of the other parts.—Their growth after birth.—Their colours are a little deeper in infancy. 403
II. State of the Pilous System in the following Ages.
Revolution at puberty.—Of the hairs which then appear.—There are but few changes in the following ages. 404
III. State of the Pilous System in Old Age.
Of the hairs which die first.—Of the whiteness which they then assume.—They grow in this state.—Why.—Do they grow after death.—General differences of animate and inanimate bodies in their decay. 405
IV. Preternatural Development.
Development upon the mucous surfaces, upon the skin and in cysts. 408