Volume 3 — LESSON XIV

VIENO SYSTEM OF FOOD MEASUREMENT

The amount of nutrition contained in a given quantity of food is often a determining factor in curative dietetics.

The two most important things to be considered in prescribing foods are:

1 The amount of energy contained in a given quantity

2 The amount of available nitrogen or tissue-building material in a given quantity

ENERGY

Energy is the power to do work. That form of energy with which we are most familiar is mechanical energy, as raising a stone or turning a wheel.

Heat is another form of energy. Heat and work can be converted into each other. The steam-engine turns heat into work, while a "hot box" on a car-wheel is a case of work being turned back into heat.

Amount of heat a food produces determines its energy

Experience shows that a definite amount of heat will yield a definite amount of work, so that the amount of heat produced by a given amount of food, when combined with oxygen, is taken as a measure of its energy. This is ordinarily expressed in calories, a calorie being the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one thousand grams of water one degree on the centigrade thermometer scale.

The use of these terms need not concern the student. Instead of using the calorie I will use a unit which is equal to one hundred calories. I have selected a unit of this size because it gives about the ordinary service of food at meals which is easily measured and remembered.

NITROGEN

Nitrogen is the chemical element that is most concerned with the function of life. All animal tissue contains nitrogen, which forms about one-sixth part, by weight, of all the nitrogenous or protein substances.

Proportion of Nitrogen in lean meat

If we were to take a hundred pounds of lean meat, or muscle, and evaporate from it all the water, we would have about eighteen pounds of dry material left. If we should analyze this dry substance, we would find that about one-sixth, or three pounds, would be the element nitrogen. Thus we say that muscle contains eighteen per cent of protein, or three per cent of nitrogen. In ordinary practise the protein is mixed with fats and salts, and cannot be measured by simply drying out the water, so the chemist finds the amount of nitrogen present and multiplies by 6.25, which gives about the correct per cent of protein. This method is not exact because the per cent of nitrogen in various proteids is not always the same, but it will give an intelligent average. I will discard the use of the term protein, and refer to the amount of nitrogen directly.

All compounds of the element nitrogen are not available as food. For example: The nitrogen of the air, of ammonia gas, or gunpowder cannot be utilized in the animal body. The nitrogen in foods only refers to available nitrogen. Compounds containing other forms of nitrogen are not foods, but are frequently poisons.

SYSTEMS OF FOOD MEASUREMENTS COMPARED

THE "OLD" SYSTEM

Under the old system of food measurement, feeding the human body cannot be made a practical science for the masses, therefore a new system becomes necessary. That we may more fully appreciate the value of a new system, let us consider the methods hitherto available.

Suppose a man is using two quarts of milk a day, and wishes to determine the amount of available nitrogen or tissue-building material and energy it contains. Under the old system he must get a book on food analysis, or send to Washington for a Government bulletin. If he does not understand the meaning of the terms and figures used, the tables would be useless to him until he goes to a chemist to have them explained. He is now ready to work out the nutritive value of his milk, and proceeds as follows:

First, he gets the number of cu cm in the milk, thus—952.8 (number cu cm in 1 quart) x 2 = 1905.6, number of cu cm in 2 quarts of milk. Second, he gets the weight of his milk in grams—1.032 (number grams in 1 cu cm of milk) x 1905.6 = 1966.57, number of grams in 2 quarts of milk.

He now turns to a table of analysis which tells him that milk contains 3 per cent of protein, 3½ per cent of fat, and 4½ per cent of sugar. As the amount of nitrogen in milk is approximately one-sixth of its entire protein, he would now get 16 per cent of the 3 per cent (.16 x .03 = .0048), which is the percentage of nitrogen contained in milk.

His next step would be—1966.57 (number grams in 2 quarts of milk) x .0048 = 9.44, the number of grams of nitrogen in 2 quarts of milk.

I will not explain the way in which the energy would have to be figured, but will merely give the arithmetical processes by which the result is obtained:

3 × 4.1 = 12.3 3.5 × 9.3 = 32.55 4.5 × 4.1 = 18.45 12.3 + 32.55 + 18.45 = 63.30 1966.57 × 63.30 = 124483.88 124483.88 ÷ 100 = 1244, the No. of calories or energy (heat units) contained in two quarts of milk.

THE NEW OR "VIENO" SYSTEM

Derivation of the word Vieno

To a unit of food-energy which is equal to one hundred calories (see last paragraph on "Energy"), I have given the name of Vieno, derived from "vital" and "energy," and pronounced vi-eń-o. The Vieno system, therefore, will measure all foods by vi-en-os, or units of energy equal to one hundred of the chemist's calories. One vieno of milk is one-sixth of a quart, or two-thirds of an ordinary glass. From this it is readily seen that two quarts of milk will give twelve vienos of energy, or, if we wish to express it in the chemist's term, twelve hundred calories.

How to compute amount of nitrogen in food

The table also states that milk has a nitrogen factor of .8. Therefore, if we wish to know the amount of nitrogen in the two quarts of milk, all we need do is to multiply the number of vienos by the nitrogen factor; 12 x .8 = 9.6, which figure represents the nitrogen consumption expressed in grams. (See explanation of fourth column of table.) These results are practically the same as those obtained by the old system of computation, but expressed in simpler terms. Thus we see that the vieno system of computing food values is unique in its simplicity, and will be a very material aid in putting Food Science on a practical basis.

NECESSITY FOR A SIMPLE SYSTEM

Neither volume nor weight are correct standards for measuring food values

Things are commonly measured by volume, or by weight. That volume could not be made sufficiently accurate in the measurement of food values is evident. A bushel of lettuce leaves would contain much less food value than a bushel of wheat. Weight would seem to be a fairer way to compare foods, but all foods contain water, which may vary from five to ninety-five per cent. A pound of turnips, which is nine-tenths water, would not be comparable with sugar, which has scarcely any water.

Even if it were not for the water, weight would not be a fair method of comparison because some foods are of more value per pound than others, owing to their difference in chemical composition. For instance, a pound of butter gives about two and one-fourth times as much heat to the body as sugar.

As before mentioned, the two chief food factors which we ought to measure are energy-producing and tissue-building power.

What constitutes a true food

All true foods when assimilated in the body produce some energy. In fact, only such substances as produce bodily energy, when combined with the oxygen taken in through the lungs, can be correctly termed food.

I have taken this energy-producing power of food as the best basis for measurement and comparison. The nitrogen could have been taken as a unit, and the energy figured by a table, but it is simpler to use energy as a unit (as given in column 3, p. 655), and figure the nitrogen in the various foods by means of a table which gives the amount of nitrogen per unit of energy. (Column 4, p. 655.)

Multiplication of units of energy (column 3) by the nitrogen factor (column 4) is necessary because the ratio of nitrogen to energy is different in each food.

EXPLANATION OF TABLE

In the table that follows, I have attempted to give in the simplest way the amount of each particular food that one vieno equals.

The second column shows, in the plainest language possible, what one vieno of food equals—as, one vieno of barley equals one ounce; or, one vieno of nuts equals one rounded tablespoonful, etc. This method is, of course, only approximate, as in some foods it is impossible to find a simple term to express the amount of one vieno. This is especially true of cooked foods because of the varied amounts of water contained. In such cases the way for the student to become familiar with a vieno is to weigh one pound of the raw material, and, after it is cooked, weigh it again, and then calculate the water content.

The definition given in the second column in the case of milk, butter, eggs, and cheese is fairly accurate. The description given in the case of cereals and bread is also fairly accurate. In the list of fresh vegetables, no attempt has been made to describe one vieno by volume, as, vegetables being loose and bulky, it is practical to measure them only by weight.

Only the edible portion of food considered

In the case of fresh fruits, one vieno has been defined as "one large orange" or "six plums," etc. In such cases allowance for the non-edible portion has been made; all weights given in the table consider only the edible portion.

In the case of nuts, the definition of a vieno in so many spoonfuls is fairly accurate. This is done only as an illustration, and not continued throughout the table. The student should use only the second column of the table for rough work, and to help him figure the approximate amount of one vieno.

The third column of the table, which gives the number of vienos or the amount of heat-energy in one pound, is the column to which the student should refer in his work. A pound of food referred to in this column invariably means one pound of the edible portion.

Simple method of reducing food to vienos

The way for the student to calculate the amount of food in one vieno is to take a pound of the food that he is to use and divide it equally into as many portions as the number in the third column. For example: If one pound of wheat is given as equal to sixteen vienos, the student should weigh a pound of wheat and divide it into sixteen portions, and each of these portions will equal one vieno.

The nitrogen factor simplified

The fourth column of the table gives the approximate nitrogen factor; that is, the percentage of nitrogen by weight in one vieno. This column is to be used for computing the amount of nitrogen in the diet under all ordinary circumstances. The student should take the total number of vienos of each food and multiply this number by the nitrogen factor. The product will be the approximate amount of the nitrogen consumed, expressed in grams. This is the direct method of ascertaining the amount of available nitrogen in food.

Grams reduced to vienos

If in reading other works, the student finds the amount of nitrogen given in decigrams, he needs only to divide by ten in order to reduce it to this system, as a decigram is one-tenth of a gram. Likewise, protein can be reduced to grams, or decigrams, by a simple process of multiplication and division, as follows: Sixty grams of protein contains practically ten grams (one hundred decigrams) of nitrogen. Divide the amount of protein by six to change protein to the nitrogen unit. That is (Protein ÷ 6) = amount of nitrogen in grams.

The old-fashioned food table gave the amount of protein in per cent by weight, making it necessary to weigh the food, figure the amount of protein by multiplying the weight by the per cent, and then reducing this according to the rule given above. I explain this so that the student may be able to compare results expressed in the old table, with the vieno method, but in all practical work the student should use only this direct method which is much more simple and accurate.

The fifth column of the table gives the weight of one vieno in grams. This adds no new information, but only gives the weight of one vieno in the metric system. It should be used by those who wish to be accurate in their work, or by those who take a scientific interest in their dietary.

Examples for the student who desires to be exact

The last column of the table gives the actual amount of nitrogen in one vieno of food expressed in grams. This is the accurate figure from which the approximate nitrogen factor for ordinary use has been derived. For example: The actual amount of nitrogen in one vieno of chestnuts is .396. If this number is multiplied by the number of vienos of chestnuts eaten, we would have the actual number of grams of nitrogen consumed. Suppose ten vienos of chestnuts are eaten; we would multiply .396 by ten, which would give us 3.96 grams of nitrogen. For ordinary purposes, I use the nearest decimal, which is .4, and which I give in the fourth column as the nitrogen factor. Those who wish to figure the nitrogen with scientific accuracy should use the figures given in the last column of the table, as in the example I have given.

The Vieno system of food measurement is new, and is intended to give to the practitioner and to the housewife the greatest aid in balancing or proportioning the diet. I have therefore included in the following tables, all classes of foods, many of which I do not recommend or use in my scientific work.

TABLE OF FOOD MEASUREMENTS

DIRECT METHOD OF CALCULATING AVAILABLE NITROGEN IN FOOD

Multiplying the number of vienos (column 3) by the nitrogen factor (column 4) will give the amount of available nitrogen in the various foods, expressed in grams

1 2 3 4 5 6

Name of Food Quantity equaling one vieno *(100 calories) No. vienos or amount of heat energy in one pound Nitrogen factor Weight of one vieno in grams Grams of nitrogen in one vieno

Cereal Foods

Barley, pearled One ounce 16 .4 27.5 .37

Bread—

Graham Loaf size,¾ in. thick 12 .6 37.5 .59

White Loaf size, ¾ in. thick 12 .6 39.3 .58

TABLE OF FOOD MEASUREMENTS—(Continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Name of Food Quantity equaling one vieno *(100 calories) No. vienos or amount of heat energy in one pound Nitrogen factor Weight of one vieno in grams Grams of nitrogen in one vieno

Christian's Vieno bran Two ounces 8 .3 21.2 .30

Christian's Vieno self-raising bran meal 1½ ounces 12 .4 33.5 .55

Corn-meal One ounce 16 .4 27.4 .41

Corn-starch One ounce, scant 17 .0 27.1 .00

Crackers Four, average size 19 .4 23.8 .39

Hominy One ounce 16 .4 27.5 .36

Macaroni or spaghetti One ounce 16 .6 27.2 .58

Oatmeal or rolled oats Scant ounce 15 .6 24.4 .63

Rice One ounce 16 .4 27.8 .36

Rye flour One ounce 16 .3 27.8 .30

White flour One ounce 16 .5 27.9 .49

Whole wheat or graham flour One ounce 16 .6 27.8 .61

Whole wheat One ounce 16 .6 27.8 .61

Dairy Products

Butter Not quite an inch cube 36 .0 12.6 .00

Cheese—

Cottage Three ounces 5 3.0 89.0 2.97

Full cream Portion size of walnut 20 1.0 22.0 1.01

Cream (20% fat) Five tablespoonfuls 10 .2 45.0 .17

Milk—

Buttermilk One full glass 2 1.3 274.0 1.32

Condensed Three tablespoonfuls 15 .4 30.0 .42

Skimmed One full glass 2 1.5 267.0 .46

Whole Two-thirds of a glass 3 .8 140.0 .78

Fish

Fresh fish (Run of the market) Quarter of a lb. 6 3.1 102.0 3.13

1 2 3 4 5 6

Name of Food Quantity equaling one vieno *(100 calories) No. vienos or amount of heat energy in one pound Nitrogen factor Weight of one vieno in grams Grams of nitrogen in one vieno

Fruit

Apples One, 2½ in. thick 3 .1 156.4 .10

Apricots Six of moderate size 3 .3 168.0 .29

Bananas One large 5 .2 98.6 .21

Berries—

Blackberries One moderate sauce-dish 3 .3 168.0 .35

Raspberries One moderate sauce-dish 3 .4 146.3 .39

Strawberries One sauce-dish 2 .4 252.0 .40

Cantaloup One five-inch in diameter 2 .3 299.0 .29

Cherries One moderate sauce-dish 4 .2 103.0 .16

Currants (dried) Three tablespoonfuls 13 .1 33.4 .11

Dates Five, average size 16 .1 28.1 .09

Figs Two, average size 5 .2 30.7 .21

Grapes One moderate sauce-dish 4 .2 108.8 .23

Lemons Three, moderate size 2 .3 221.0 .35

Olive-oil One tablespoonful 42 .0 10.1 .00

Olives (ripe) Eight 12 .0 37.5 .00

Oranges One large orange 2 .2 189.0 .24

Pears One, large 3 .2 154.0 .15

Plums Six, small 4 .2 115.0 .18

Prunes Three, large 14 .1 32.4 .11

Raisins Two heaping tablespoonfuls 16 .1 28.3 .12

Watermelon 1½ pound melon meat 1 .2 324.0 .20

Meat

Bacon (smoked) Slice ¼ in. thick, 4 in. long 30 .2 15.0 .24

Chops—

Lamb Portion size of an egg 15 .9 29.4 .88

Pork (medium fat) Slice ½ in. thick, 2 in. square 16 .8 28.7 .76

Ham (smoked)(medium fat) Slice ½ in. thick, 2 in. square 19 .6 23.3 .57

1 2 3 4 5 6

Name of Food Quantity equaling one vieno *(100 calories) No. vienos or amount of heat energy in one pound Nitrogen factor Weight of one vieno in grams Grams of nitrogen in one vieno

Leg of mutton (medium fat) Portion size of an egg 11 1.2 41.0 1.20

Ribs of beef Portion size of an egg 15 .9 31.3 .87

Steak—

Porterhouse Slice ½ in. thick, 2 in. square 13 .9 35.7 .90

Round beef Slice ½ in. thick, 2 in. square 12 1.6 47.7 1.55

Nuts

Almonds One heaping tablespoonful 30 .5 15.0 .53

Brazil-nuts One heaping tablespoonful 32 .4 13.9 .38

Chestnuts One heaping tablespoonful 11 .4 40.3 .40

Cocoanuts, fresh Half an ounce 32 .2 16.4 .16

Cocoanut, prepared Two rounded tablespoonfuls 31 .2 14.5 .15

Filberts One heaping tablespoonful 33 .3 13.8 .34

Hickory-nuts One rounded tablespoonful 33 .3 13.6 .33

Peanuts One heaping tablespoonful 26 .7 17.7 .73

Pecans One rounded tablespoonful 34 .2 13.1 .23

Pignolias One rounded tablespoonful 28 .8 15.9 .83

Pistachios One heaping tablespoonful 29 .5 15.2 .54

Walnuts—

Black One heaping tablespoonful 31 .6 14.6 .64

English One heaping tablespoonful 33 .4 14.6 .38

Poultry and Eggs

Chicken (broiler) Three ounces 7 3.1 90.0 3.09

Chicken (matured) Two ounces 8 1.4 43.7 1.44

Eggs (albumin) White of six eggs 2 3.6 181.4 3.56

Eggs (whole) One large egg 8 1.4 63.0 1.35

Eggs (yolk) Yolk of very large egg 17 .7 26.0 .66

Turkey 1¾ ounces 10 1.1 33.3 1.12

1 2 3 4 5 6

Name of Food Quantity equaling one vieno *(100 calories) No. vienos or amount of heat energy in one pound Nitrogen factor Weight of one vieno in grams Grams of nitrogen in one vieno

Sugars

Honey One ounce 16 .0 29.8 .02

Molasses—New Orleans 1½ ounces 13 .0 36.5 .01

Maple-sirup Four tablespoonfuls 13 .0 34.8 .00

Sugar—

Cane, granulated Three rounded teaspoonfuls 19 .0 24.4 .00

Maple One ounce 16 .0 30.0 .00

Vegetables

Beans—

Lima (dried) One ounce 16 .8 27.9 .81

Navy (dried) One ounce 16 1.1 28.1 1.13

String Half a pound 2 .8 232.6 .85

Beets Half a pound 2 .5 211.0 .54

Cabbage Three-fourths pound 1 .8 313.0 .80

Carrots Half a pound 2 .5 215.0 .54

Celery One pound 1 .9 533.5 .94

Corn (green) One large ear 5 .6 96.5 .62

Lettuce One pound 1 1.0 504.0 .98

Onions Half a pound 2 .5 202.0 .52

Parsnips Six ounces 2 .5 181.0 .46

Peas—

Dried One ounce 16 1.1 27.4 1.06

Green Quarter of a pound 4 1.1 97.5 1.02

Potatoes—

Sweet Three ounces 6 .2 80.0 .23

White Quarter of a pound 4 .4 118.0 .41

Spinach One pound 1 1.5 412.0 1.49

Squash Half a pound 2 .5 211.0 .47

Tomatoes One pound 1 .6 408.0 .65

Turnips Half a pound 2 .5 245.0 .51

HANDY TABLE

One pound = 16 ounces

One pound = 453.57 grams

One ounce = 28.35 grams

The weight of such foods as meat, fruit, etc., is so nearly equal to that of water that the weight may be calculated from the size, if that is known.

One cubic inch = 16.5 grams

One cubic inch = about a half ounce

One cubic foot = 62 pounds

One gallon = 8 pounds

One pint = 476.4 grams

Milk is slightly heavier than water, while oils or fats are lighter.

One quart of milk = 980 grams

One quart of olive-oil = 876 grams

One average egg = 50 grams

One average olive = 6 grams

One Vieno = 100 calories

One decigram nitrogen = 13/5 of a gram of protein