(1) Adverbs are formed by adding -e or -līce to the corresponding adjectives: sōð, true; sōðe or sōðlīce, truly; earmlīc, wretched; earmlīce, wretchedly; wīd, wide; wīde, widely; micel, great; micle (micele), greatly, much.

(2) The terminations -e and -līce are replaced in some adverbs by -(l)unga or -(l)inga: eallunga, entirely; fǣringa, suddenly; grundlunga, from the ground, completely.

Note 1.—In Mn.E. headlong, darkling, and groveling, originally adverbs, we have survivals of these endings.

(3) The genitive case is frequently used adverbially: sūðeweardes, southwards; ealles, altogether, entirely; dæges, by day; nihtes, by night; ðæs, from that time, afterwards. Cf. hys (= his) weges in Ðonne rīdeð ǣlc hys weges, Then rides each his way.

Note 2.—The adverbial genitive is abundantly preserved in Mn.E. Always, crossways, sideways, needs (= necessarily), sometimes, etc., are not plurals, but old genitive singulars. The same construction is seen in of course, of a truth, of an evening, of old, of late, and similar phrases.

(4) Dative and instrumental plurals may be used as adverbs: hwīlum, at times, sometimes [whilom]; stundum (stund = period), from time to time; miclum, greatly. Especially common is the suffix -mǣlum (mǣl = time, measure [meal]), preserved adverbially in Mn.E. piecemeal: dropmǣlum, drop by drop; styccemǣlum (stycce = piece), piecemeal, here and there.

(5) The suffix -an usually denotes motion from:

hēr, here. hider, hither. heonan, hence.

ðǣr, there. ðider, thither. ðǫnan, thence.

hwǣr, where? hwider, whither? hwǫnan, whence?

norðan, from the north.

ēastan, from the east.

hindan, from behind.

feorran, from far.

ūtan, from without.

(6) The adverb rihte (riht = right, straight) denotes motion toward in norðrihte, northward, due north; ēastrihte, due east; sūðrihte, due south; westrihte, due west.

Prepositions.

94.

The nominative is the only case in O.E. that is never governed by a preposition. Of the other cases, the dative and accusative occur most frequently with prepositions.

(1) The prepositions that are most frequently found with the dative are:

æfter, after.

ǣt, at.

be (bī), by, near, about.

betwēonan (betuh), between.

būtan (būton), except.

for, for.

frǫm (fram), from, by.

mid, with.

of, of, from.

tō, to.

tōforan, before.

tōweard, toward.

(2) The following prepositions require the accusative:

geond, throughout [be-yond].

ofer, over, upon.

oð, until, up to.

ðurh, through.

ymbe, about, around [um-while, ember-days].

(3) The preposition on (rarely in), meaning into, is usually followed by the accusative; but meaning in, on, or during, it takes the dative or instrumental. The preposition wið, meaning toward, may be followed by the genitive, dative, or accusative; but meaning against, and implying motion or hostility, the accusative is more common.

(4) The following phrases are used prepositionally with the dative:

be norðan, north of.

be ēastan, east of.

be sūðan, south of.

be westan, west of.

tō ēacan, in addition to.

on emnlange (efn-lang = evenly long), along.

tō emnes, along.

(5) Prepositions regularly precede the noun or pronoun that they introduce; but by their adverbial nature they are sometimes drawn in front of the verb: And him wæs mycel męnegu tō gegaderod, And there was gathered unto him a great multitude. In relative clauses introduced by ðe, the preceding position is very common: sēo scīr ... ðe hē on būde, the district, ... which he dwelt in (= which he in-habited); Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on ðǣm ǣhtum ðe hiera spēda on bēoð, He was a very rich man in those possessions which their riches consist in; nȳhst ðǣm tūne ðe sē dēada man on līð, nearest the town that the dead man lies in.

Conjunctions.

95.

(1) The most frequently occurring conjunctions are:

ac, but.

ǣr, before, ere.

būtan (būton), except that, unless.

ēac, also [eke].

for ðǣm, because.

}

for ðǣm ðe,

for ðon,

for ðon ðe,

for ðȳ, therefore.

gif, if.

hwæðer, whether.

ǫnd (and), and.

oððe, or.

ðæt, that, so that.

ðēah, though, however.

(2) The correlative conjunctions are:

ǣgðer ge . . . . ge, both . . . . . . . . and.

ǣgðer . . . . . . . oððe . . . . . . . . ōðer oððe either . . . . . . . or.

}

nē . . . . . . . . . . nē, neither . . . . . nor.

sam . . . . . . . . . sam, whether . . . . or.

swā . . . . . . . . . swā the . . . . . . . . . as . . . . . . . . . . the. as.

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ðā . . . . . . . . . . . ðonne . . . . . . . ðā ðonne when . . . . . . . then.

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