EPITOME OF ELECTRICITY. (continued 2)

The third and last fish that we shall mention, is the Silurus or Silurus electricus, a genus in Ichthyology belonging to the order of Pisces Abdominales.—The body of this is long, smooth, and without scales, being rather large and flattened towards the lower part. The eyes are of the middle size and covered by the skin which envelopes all the head. Each of the jaws is furnished with a great number of small teeth. About the mouth it has six filamentous appendices, two from the upper, and four from the under lip. The colour of the body is greyish, with a few dark spots towards the tail.

With regard to its electrical properties very little is known, enough however to entitle it to the name of electricus.

61

CHAP. XVII. The influence of electricity on vegetables.

With regard to this part of our subject there has been considerable controversy between philosophers, some of them asserting that electricity is unfavourable, and others that it is advantageous to vegetation. It was asserted by the Abbè Bertholon, in his book entitled Electricitè des meteores, that plants situated near a metallic conductor increased considerably in consequence of their situation. And, on the other hand, Giardini says that plants growing near such conductors are generally unhealthy, and produce very little fruit, but upon removing the conductor the plants become luxuriant and fruitful.

The Abbè Bertholon in endeavouring to establish his opinion, constructed what he called an electro vegetometer by means of which the electricity of the atmosphere may be collected in abundance. “This apparatus (says he) having been raised with care in the midst of a garden, the happiest effects were perceived, viz. different plants, herbs and fruits, in greater forwardness than usual, more multiplied and of better quality.” These facts are analogous to an observation that I have often made, viz. that plants grow best, and are more vigorous near thunder rods, where their situation favours their developement. They likewise serve to explain why vegetation is so vigorous in lofty forests, and where the trees raise their heads far from the surface of the earth, so that they seek as it were the electric fluid at a far greater height than plants less elevated: while the sharp extremity of their leaves, boughs and branches 62serve as so may points granted them, by the munificent hand of nature, to draw down from the atmosphere that electric fluid which is so powerful an agent in forwarding vegetation, and in promoting the different functions of plants.—Such are the theory and experiments of the Abbè, but Doctor Ingenhaus, in two letters to Mr. Molitor, published in the journal de physique for 1786–88 has shewn the fallacy of the theory, by exposing the insufficiency of the experiments upon which it was established.

We shall translate a few passages from the Doctor’s letter, which will shew us his opinion and the result of his experiments.

I have frequently made experiments of this kind by exposing plants to a weak degree of electricity, and at other times to a considerable quantity, without ever being able to observe that plants under its influence prospered more than those which were not electrified at all. It even appeared to me more than once, that those which had been electrified were a little less thrifty than those which were not electrified.

In another place he says, Not being content with these experiments, I have made others infinitely more conclusive, by strewing seeds of mustard and cresses, over the largest plates of delf that I could procure, covering them with brown paper, and sprinkling them continually with a sufficiency of water. Each of these plates was covered with more than a thousand seeds; I kept them electrified night and day, according to the method which Mr. Schewankhard directed, in a letter quoted by Mr. Elermann, but which I shall not repeat in this place, lest I should swell this memoir: the vegetation of these little shrubberies was always more or 63less precarious, in proportion to the greater or less quantity of light that they received; the electricity really contributing nothing to advance the growth: thus the controversy stands, we leave the reader to form his own opinion.

That some plants are more affected than others by electricity is an unquestionable fact. It is however not true as some have affirmed, that the contractions of the mimosa or sensitive plant, are attributable to this cause. The plant is equally affected when touched either by a conductor or an electric.

CHAP. XVIII. Medical electricity.

Electricity has one advantage over other medical applications, in as much as it may be applied to the healthy, as well as the diseased part of the body, without proving prejudicial, and because it requires rather a nice application, than a perfect knowledge of the complaint. In a number of cases it has unquestionably proved salutary.

When electricity was first used in removing bodily complaints, it was done only by means of the Leyden phial pretty highly charged; but this mode of administering it, was strenuously opposed by Mr. Lovet, who was a celebrated electrical practitioner, and in an essay called Subtil medium proved, asserts that electricity should be used in small sparks, by which mode of treatment he affirms he scarcely ever failed curing or at least relieving his patients.

64The apparatus for medical electricity in addition to the machine described in chapter IV, is an insulating stool. This stool is made in the common way, only that the feet must be of glass, the upper or wooden part, should be about three feet square, so that a chair or bench may conveniently stand upon it; care must be taken to leave no sharp edges about the stool. For a representation of one, see plate letter W.

The next instrument necessary for the electrical physician is a coated jar, furnished with Mr. Lane’s electrometer. This instrument is made in the following manner. From the wire extending beyond the mouth of the jar, at about four inches from the upper extremity, let a piece of glass or baked wood three inches long, project at right angles. At the outer extremity of this stem let another piece of baked wood three inches long, be fixed parallel to the rod of the jar; the upper end of the parallel stem must be furnished with a brass socket, through which a graduated wire may easily pass. This wire must be furnished with a knob upon the end which is next the jar, and a hook or ring at its other extremity, to which a chain connected with the outer coating of the jar must be attached. From this construction it is readily perceived that the force of the discharge or shock, will be proportioned to the distance of the ball of the electrometer, and the usual ball of the jar; i. e. when the shock is large it will pass from one knob to the other at a larger distance, and when small at a smaller distance, and thus the distance will be the measure of the shock.—The next thing to be provided is a ball, either of metal, or of wood covered with tin foil; this must have a metallic handle, which may be separated 65from the ball at pleasure, having at one of its extremities a sharp point to receive a stream of electric fire; small pointed pieces of wood made in a conical shape, may be fixed on this point, when the patient requires a degree of electricity between a spark and a stream.

The bottle director is the next instrument to be described. It is exactly the same with the common Leyden phial, with the addition only of a hook cemented to the bottom. To use this director (suppose for instance you wished to pass a shock through the arm) let a communication be made between its inner coating and the prime-conductor, by which means it will be charged; then let a chain be fastened, by one end, to the hook which is at the bottom; then by applying the other end of the chain (which may be furnished with a ball) to one side of the arm, and the knob of the jar to the other, a shock will be given.

These are the instruments for the electrical physician. We are now to describe the manner in which electricity may be applied to the best advantage.

1st. By simply placing the patient upon the electrical stool. While the machine is in action the patient constantly emits the overplus of the electric fluid that he receives, which continually passes off from every part of his body, and produces a salutary effect. It may be suspected that so gentle a treatment could have but little influence. It is however upon good authority we assert, that nervous and sedentary persons have derived considerable advantage from this mode of application.

2d. By electric friction. Let the part affected be covered with a piece of flannel or woollen cloth, and place 66the patient upon the insulated chair, and connect him with the prime-conductor; then take a metallic ball, communicating with the earth, and rub it over the flannel or woollen cloth. Electricity thus applied has often removed violent spasms, and many other afflicting complaints.

3d. By drawing sparks. Let the patient, as in the last instance, be placed upon the insulated stool, and connected with the prime-conductor; then bring the metallic ball, communicating with the ground, within about half an inch of the part affected, and sparks will pass from it to the ball. Cutaneous eruptions, scrophulous tumours and deafness, are frequently benefitted, and sometimes removed, by this method of application. Deafness, in particular, has been entirely cured by the electric spark, when every other remedy has proved ineffectual. One of these cases came under our own observation. A gentleman who was affected with an almost total loss of hearing for more than six months, was advised by his physician to make a trial of electricity as a remedy. He applied to us, and was under our care about four or five weeks, when he left us almost entirely recovered. This gentleman was treated in the following manner.

We placed him on an insulated chair communicating with the prime-conductor. Then, with a blunt pointed wire inserted into a glass tube, we drew sparks from the meatus auditorius. This operation was continued for eight or ten minutes, at every visit. He commonly attended us twice or thrice a week. We were fully persuaded that the cure would have been more speedy, if he had received the electricity more frequently.

674th. By the stream. Place the patient as in the two last instances; then bring the point, instead of the ball, near the part affected. When the electrical stream is to be applied the wooden point is preferable to the metallic one. Inflammations and other diseases of the eyes, and several other disorders, have been thus removed.

5th. By the director. Place the patient on a chair—insulation in this case being unnecessary. Then lay the ball, which communicates with the outside coating of the director, upon the affected part; after which, bring the director, which must have been previously charged, near any other part of the body, and the intended operation will be performed. It is impossible to tell the precise quantity of electricity which ought to be administered in every complaint, because persons who are affected with the same disease will sometimes require very different degrees of electrization, which must be judged of by the nature of their constitution, their habits of body, and other circumstances. Small sparks will sometimes have more effect upon a delicate and irritable constitution, than pretty powerful shocks upon others. The Leyden phial, with Mr. Lane’s electrometer, is the most convenient instrument for sending shocks of different powers through particular parts of the body.—To use this.—Let the wire of the electrometer be placed at the proper distance for the required shock; connect a chain or wire, communicating with this, with the part affected—and let a communication be made between any other part of the body and the outside coating of the phial. Now turn the cylinder, and the phial, when it has received the proper charge, will discharge itself through the circuit formed by the chains or wires, and 68the part of the patient which was to be subjected to the shock.

CHAP. XIX. Directions concerning the use of the electrical apparatus, with some practical rules for performing experiments with it to the best advantage.

The machine described in Chapter IV, or one similar to it, is capable of exhibiting the principal electrical phenomena, provided it be skilfully managed; but without such management it will constantly disappoint the electrician, and prove of little use. Let the following directions and observations, then, be attentively regarded.

1. Keep all the instruments as free as possible from dust and moisture.

2. When the weather is clear, the air dry and a little cold, the electric fire may be easily and copiously collected. But when the weather is hot or damp, the electrical machine is much less powerful.

3. Before the machine is used, the cylinder should be wiped clean, with a linen cloth that is soft, dry, and warm; after which a clean hot piece of flannel, or old silk handkerchief, may be applied with advantage.—This done, if the cylinder be turned pretty fast, when the prime conductor and other instruments are removed, the electricity, upon applying the knuckle or other conductor, will issue from the glass with a crackling noise, accompanied with sparks; this indicates the machine to be in good order, so that the electrician may proceed to perform his experiments. But if, when the 69cylinder is turned and the knuckle applied, no sparks be perceived, then the fault is most probably in the rubber. If so, it must be removed and held to a fire, so that its silk part may be dried. Then take a little tallow from a candle and just pass it over the leather of the cushion, after which spread upon it, a little amalgam, and force it as much as possible into the leather. Replace it, and let the cylinder be again wiped; the machine is fit for use.

4. Sometimes the electric matter will not be well collected, because the machine is not sufficiently supplied with it from the earth; which happens, when the table upon which the electrical machine is placed and to which the chain or wire of the rubber is connected, is very dry, and consequently a bad conductor. In this case, the best method is to connect the chain or wire of the rubber with some moist ground, or with the iron-work of a water-pump, if convenient. Thus the rubber will be supplied with as much of the electric fluid as is required.

5. When the cylinder is very hot (say above 110° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer,) it will not collect the electric fluid well.

6. When a sufficient quantity of amalgam has been accumulated upon the leather of the rubber, and the machine does not work well, then, instead of putting more upon it, a small quantity of that which is already on the leather must be taken off.

7. After the cylinder has been used for some time it will contract black streaks, which continually increase, and greatly obstruct its electric power.—These streaks must be taken off, and the glass frequently wiped to prevent their being again formed.

708. Coated jars, before they are used, ought to be made a little warm. If this be done, they will receive and retain the charge much better.

9. If one of the jars of a battery, as is sometimes the case, make a spontaneous discharge prematurely, it will of course discharge the whole battery; and in such case the faulty jar should be exchanged for one which is free from this defect.

10. In making the discharge of an electrical battery, or of a single jar, the electrician must be careful not to place the discharging-rod upon the thinnest part of the glass, as that may cause the bursting of the jar.

11. In large batteries, some of the jars frequently burst in the discharge. To remedy this inconvenience, Mr. Nairne says that the discharging-rod should never be made of a good conducting substance, except the circuit be at least five feet long. But here it may be remarked, that the length of the circuit weakens the force of the shock proportionably; the highest degree of which is in many instances required. When a coated phial is cracked, either by a spontaneous discharge or otherwise, the outside coating must be removed from the fractured part; then make it moderately hot by holding it near the fire; in this situation apply burning sealing-wax to the part, so as to cover the fracture completely, taking care that the thickness of the wax be rather more than the thickness of the glass; lastly, cover all the sealing-wax, and part of the glass beyond it, with a composition made of four parts of bee’s-wax, one of rosin, one of turpentine, and a little oil of olives: which composition must be spread upon a piece of oiled silk, and applied in the form of a plaister. 71In this manner jars which have been broken may be repaired effectually.

12. When a jar, and especially a battery, has been discharged, the wires ought not to be touched with the hand before the discharging-rod has been applied a second, and even a third time; as there generally remains a residuum of the charge, which is sometimes very powerful. This residuum is in a great measure occasioned by the electricity, which, when the jar is charging, spreads itself over the uncoated part of the glass, and which is not discharged at first, but gradually returns to the coating after the first discharge is made.

13. When an experiment is to be performed which requires only a small part of the apparatus, the remaining part should be removed from the table.—Candles should never be placed near the prime-conductor; for the effluvia of their flames carry off much of the electric matter.

14. One or two inches of the lower part of a Leyden phial should be coated with some thick paint, in order to prevent the amalgam, which is often scattered upon the table, from corroding the tin-foil, and thereby diminishing the charge.

15. When a prime-conductor is used, those sparks are strongest which are taken from the extremity farthest from the cylinder.

16. The longest sparks are drawn from any conductor along an electric substance. Thus, if the conductor be supported by pillars of glass or baked wood, the longest sparks may be taken close to the pillar. If the conductor be bent a little inward, so as to make the surface concave, a particularly large and undivided spark may be drawn from that place: but where the 72surface is convex, the spark is more apt to be divided and weakened.

17. It sometimes happens that cylindric or globe machines do not work well, owing to the air within them being too much rarefied by the heat of the cement, when the caps are fixed on. To remedy this, a small hole may be bored through one of the caps, so as to admit air into the cylinder or globe.

18. If the electric by any means become scratched, the working of the machine will be greatly impeded, if not altogether prevented. This is accounted for upon the principle that smooth and rough glass electrify differently when excited by the same rubber, and the two different states destroy one another. This may be remedied by filling up the scratches with a little tallow.

73

EPITOME

OF

ELECTRICITY.

DIVISION II.

CHAP. I. Entertaining Experiments, made by electrical Attraction and Repulsion.

Electric attraction and repulsion, observed in excited amber, was, as we have already had occasion to remark, the first phenomenon which was noticed in the science of which we treat. We have also hinted that, to the present time, no explanation of this attraction and repulsion which is entirely satisfactory, has been given. Facts, however, are known in abundance; and certain principles, relative to this part of our subject, are clearly ascertained. To exhibit and illustrate these has been our object in selecting the following experiments; some of which may be considered as intended chiefly for amusement, but all of which, if thoroughly comprehended, will serve to fix the principles of the science more deeply in the mind of a learner.

74 EXPERIMENTS.

The self-moving Wheel.

This machine was invented by Dr. Franklin. It is made of a thin round plate of window-glass, 17 inches in diameter, covered on both sides with tin-foil, except about two inches next the edge. Two small hemispheres of wood are cemented to the two sides centrally opposite, and in each of these a strong thick wire eight or ten inches long is placed; and these form the hub and axis of the wheel. It turns horizontally on a point at the lower end of its axis, which must be insulated. The upper end of the axis, passes through a hole in a thin plate of brass, cemented to a strong piece of glass or baked wood, which keeps it six or eight inches distant from any non-electric, and is furnished with a ball of wax or metal on the top, to keep in the fire. In a circle on the table which supports the wheel, are fixed twelve small pillars of glass about four inches apart, with a thimble or metallic ball on the top of each. On the edge of the wheel is a small metallic bullet, communicating by a wire with the upper coating of the wheel; and about six inches from it, is another bullet communicating, in like manner, with the lower coating. When the wheel is to be charged by the upper coating, a communication must be made from the under one to the table. When it is well charged it begins to move; the bullet nearest to a pillar is attracted by the thimble or bullet on that pillar and passing by, electrifies it, and is immediately repelled from it; the succeeding bullet, which communicates with the other coating of the glass, 75more strongly attracts that thimble, on account of its being previously electrified by the other bullet; and thus the wheel increases its motion, till its velocity is regulated by the resistance of the atmosphere.—The wheel will turn half an hour, and make, one minute with another, 20 turns in a minute, which is 600 turns in the whole; the bullet of the upper coating giving, in each turn, 12 sparks to the thimbles or balls, which make 7200 sparks; and the bullet of the under coating receiving as many from the thimbles; those bullets moving in the time near 2500 feet. The thimbles are well fixed, and in so exact a circle, that the bullets may pass within a very small distance of each of them. If, instead of two bullets, there be eight, four communicating with the upper, and four with the under coating, placed alternately, the motion will be considerably increased, but then it will not continue so long. These wheels may be applied to the ringing of chimes, and the moving of light-made orreries.

The electrical Dance.

Suspend from the prime-conductor, by means of a hook, a metallic plate, six inches in diameter. About three or four inches from this, and directly under it, place another plate of the same kind, communicating with the earth. Upon the lower plate, throw small painted figures of men and women, cut in paper, or made of the pith of elder. Now, if the cylinder be turned, the figures will begin to move between the plates, leaping from one to the other, with surprising velocity, exhibiting many curious and ludicrous attitudes and motions.

76 The electrified Bells.

The phenomena of attraction and repulsion may be very satisfactorily shown with the electrified bells. In order to make this experiment, provide yourself with a piece of wire, furnished with a hook equidistant from both ends, and by which it may be suspended from the prime-conductor. At each end of this wire suspend a small bell by a chain or wire; and from the middle point between these two bells, suspend a third, by a silk thread; let a clapper be hung between each of the bells, also by silk threads. From the concave or under side of the middle bell let a chain proceed, communicating with the table, and having a silk thread at its extremity. Now if the cylinder of the machine be turned, the clappers will fly from bell to bell with a very quick motion, and the bells will ring as long as the electrization continues.

The two outer bells, being suspended by chains or wires, are electrified first; hence they attract the clappers; and having communicated to them part of their electricity, repel them. The middle bell, which is in its natural state, now attracts them, and deprives them of their acquired electricity; after which they are again attracted by the outer bells, and again repelled. If, by holding the silk thread, the chain of the middle bell be raised from the table, the bells, after ringing a short time, will stop; because the middle one, being insulated, will soon become as strongly electrified as the other two; in which case, the clappers being equally attracted by both bells, must discontinue their motion towards either.

77If the experiment be made in a darkened room, a spark will be seen between the clapper and bells, at every stroke.

This experiment will have a better effect, if, instead of keeping the machine in motion, a charged jar be placed in contact with the prime-conductor; and when joined with the preceding experiment, the whole will have the appearance of an electrical ball.

The inflammable air Balloons.

The following experiment may serve to illustrate some of the phenomena observed in thunder storms.

Provide two balloons, made of the allantoides of a calf, containing about two cubic feet, and fill them with inflammable air. To each of these attach, by a silk thread about eight feet long, a weight sufficient to prevent their rising higher than the above distance in the air. Then connect one of them with the positive, and the other with the negative conductor, or insulated rubber of the machine, by very thin wires, thirty feet long: keep them a considerable distance asunder, and as far from the machine as the wires will admit. On being electrified, the balloons will rise as high in the air as the silk thread will allow them, then attract each other, and uniting as it were in one cloud, will gradually descend.

The rising of these balloons is attributed to the expansion of the air contained in them, in consequence of the repulsive power communicated to its particles by the action of the electric matter upon them.—When in contact, their opposite electrical powers destroy one another, and they descend in consequence of the condensation of the internal air.

78 Dr. Franklin’s Experiment for illustrating his Theory of Thunder Storms.

Take two round pieces of paste-board, two inches in diameter; from the centre and circumference of each of them suspend, by fine silk threads eighteen inches long, seven small balls of wood, or seven peas, equal in size, so that the balls appended to each paste-board will form equilateral triangles, one ball being in the centre and six at equal distances from that, and from each other, around the circumference. Thus they represent particles of air. Dip both setts in water; and some of it adhering to each ball, they will represent air loaded with moisture. Electrify one sett, and its balls will repel each other to a greater distance, enlarging the triangles. Could the water, supported by the seven balls, come in contact, it would form a drop or drops, so heavy as to break the cohesion it had with the other balls, and so fall. Let the two setts then represent two clouds, the one a sea-cloud electrified, and the other a land-cloud. Bring them within the sphere of attraction, and they will instantly draw towards each other. Now you will see the separated clouds close thus—the first electrified ball that comes near an unelectrified one, by attraction joins it, and gives it fire; instantly they separate, and each flies to another of its own party, one to give and the other to receive fire; and so they proceed through both setts, but so quick as to be in a manner instantaneous. In the collision they shake off and drop their water, which represents rain.

79

CHAP. II. Experiments with electric Light.

These experiments should be made in a darkened room, for though the electric light is visible frequently in day light, yet the appearance of it is very often confused, so that a distinct idea of it cannot be formed.

Before we proceed to describe the experiments under this head, it will be necessary to inform the reader that by the term vacuum which he will frequently meet with in this chapter, we mean such an one as is formed by the action of an air pump, which is a good conductor of electricity.

EXPERIMENTS.

The Aurora Borealis.

Take a phial nearly of the shape and size of a Florence flask; fix a stopcock or valve to its neck, and exhaust it of air.—If this phial be rubbed in the usual way to excite electrics, it will appear luminous within, being full of a flashing light, very much resembling the northern lights or aurora borealis. This phial may also be made luminous by presenting one end of it to the prime-conductor, while the other is held in the hand. In this case, the whole cavity of the glass will instantly appear full of a flashing light, which remains in it for some time after the glass has been removed from the prime-conductor.

80A glass tube exhausted of air in the same manner, and hermetically sealed, may be used instead of this phial, and perhaps with more advantage.

The most remarkable circumstance attending this experiment is, that after the phial or tube has been removed from the prime-conductor, and even several hours after the flashing light has ceased, strong flashes will be again visible upon applying the hand.

The causes of this phenomenon are two; first, the conducting nature of the vacuum; and second, the charging of the glass; for when one side of the phial is touched with the prime-conductor, the electric fluid communicated to that part on the outside, occasions the natural fluid of the inside surface, to leave its place and pass to the opposite side of the phial, which does not communicate with the electrified conductor; this passing of the fluid through the vacuum occasions the light within, which is more or less subdivided as the vacuum is more or less perfect.

That part of the phial which has touched the prime-conductor is actually charged, for its outer surface has acquired an additional quantity of the electric fluid, and the inside has lost part of its natural quantity; but as the outside of the glass has no coating, when it is removed from the prime-conductor and is not in contact with the hand or other conductor, the charged part will be discharged gradually, that is, while its outside surface is communicating its redundant quantity to the contiguous air, the inner surface acquires the electric fluid from the other parts of the phial or tube, and this fluid passing through the vacuum, causes the light which is observed for so long a time. If the phial or 81tube be grasped with the hand, the discharge will be accelerated, yet it cannot be effected in this way immediately, because the hand cannot touch every part of the glass at once.

The Leyden Vacuum.

Take a small phial and coat it, about three inches up the outside, with tin-foil. At the mouth of this phial cement a metallic cap, having a hole with a valve; and from this cap let a wire proceed a few inches within the phial, terminating in a blunt point. When this phial is exhausted of air, a metallic ball must be screwed upon the cap, so as to defend the valve, and prevent the air from getting into the phial. The reason why this phial requires no inside coating, is, because the electric fluid pervades a vacuum, so that it can pass very easily from the wire to the surface of the exhausted glass, without the assistance of a non-electric coating.

This phial exhibits very plainly the direction of the electric matter, both in charging and discharging, for if it be held by its bottom, and the ball be presented to the prime-conductor, positively electrified, you will perceive that the pencil of rays (which always appears when the body is positively electrified, or is giving out the electric matter) will proceed from the wire within the phial, and when it is discharged, the star, (which always indicates that the body is negatively electrified, or is receiving the electric fluid) will be seen on the point instead of the pencil, but if the phial be held by the ball, and its bottom be presented to the prime-conductor, the contrary will take place.

82 The luminous Conductor.

This instrument, as well as the preceding, is an invention of Mr. Henley’s and also shows the direction of the electric fluid passing through it. The description of it is as follows. To each end of a glass tube, about eight inches long and three or four inches in diameter, is cemented a metallic cap, so as to be perfectly air tight. A point projects from one of the caps, by which it is to receive the electricity from an excited cylinder, and from the other proceeds a wire, terminated by a ball, from which sparks may be taken. Each cap is furnished on the inside with a knobbed wire, which extends some distance into the tube. A stopcock or valve must be adapted to one of the caps, by which the tube may be exhausted of air.

The supporters of the instrument are two glass pillars, fastened to a bottom board.

When the tube is exhausted of air, and its pointed end placed near the excited cylinder of an electrical machine, the point will appear illuminated with a star, and a weak light will be seen pervading the whole tube; but from the knobbed end of the wire, within the tube, a lucid pencil will issue, and the opposite knob will be illuminated with a star or round body of light, which, as well as the pencil of rays from the other knob, will be discernible among the other light which occupies the cavity of the tube. If the point, instead of being presented to the cylinder, be connected with the rubber, the appearance will be reversed—the reason is too obvious to mention.

83If the wires within the tube be pointed, the illumination will be the same; but it seems not so strong in this as in the other case.

The electric Light flashing between two metallic Plates.

Let two persons (one standing upon an insulated stool communicating with the prime-conductor, and the other upon the floor,) each hold in his hand a polished metallic plate, in such a manner that their surfaces may be parallel, and about two inches asunder. Upon turning the cylinder, you will see the flashes of light between the two plates, so dense and frequent, that you can easily perceive any thing in the room.

By this experiment the electric light is exhibited in a very copious and beautiful manner, and bears a strong resemblance to lightning.

The spiral Tube.

This instrument is composed of two glass tubes, one within the other, and furnished with a metallic ball at each end. The innermost tube has a spiral row of small round pieces of tin-foil, stuck upon its outside surface, and lying at the distance of one thirteenth of an inch apart. Now if the tube be held by one of its extremities, while the other is presented to the prime-conductor, every spark that is received from the conductor, will cause small sparks to appear between all the round pieces of tin-foil upon the inner tube, which in the dark appears encompassed by a spiral line of sparkling fire.

84Small pieces of tin-foil are sometimes stuck upon pieces of glass, so as to represent various fanciful figures, and upon the same principle is the luminous word produced.

To make an electric Spark visible in Water, and to render various other Substances luminous.

Fill a glass tube, about an inch in diameter and six inches long, with water, and to each extremity adapt a cork to confine the water; through the corks let two blunt wires pass, so as nearly to touch one another within the tube: connect the outside coating of a small charged phial with one of these wires, and touch the knob to the other, which will cause a vivid spark to appear between their extremities within the tube.

It is necessary in this experiment that the charge of the phial should be exceedingly slight, otherwise the tube would burst. If you place in a common drinking glass almost full of water, two knobbed wires, so that their knobs may be within a little distance of one another in the water, and make the charge of a large jar pass through the wires, the explosion will disperse the water and break the glass with surprising violence.—This experiment is very dangerous if not made with great caution.

Water may be made luminous thus. Connect one end of a chain with the outside coating of a charged jar, and let the other lie on the table; place the end of another chain at about one fourth of an inch from the former; then set a decanter of water on these separated ends, and on making a discharge of the jar through the chains, the water will appear beautifully luminous.

85To render ivory or box wood luminous.—Place an ivory ball on the prime-conductor of the machine, and take a spark or send the charge of a phial through its center, the ball will appear perfectly luminous; but if the charge be not taken through the center, it will pass off the surface and corrode it.

A spark taken through a ball of box wood, not only illuminates it, but makes it appear of a beautiful crimson, or rather scarlet colour. An egg may also be illuminated in the same way.

But the most curious experiment to shew the electric light is made with the real, or more easily with the artificial Bolognian stone, invented by the ingenious Mr. J. Canton. This phosphorus is a calcareous substance (generally used in the form of powder) which has the property of absorbing light when exposed to it, and afterwards appearing lucid in the dark. To make the experiment, take some of this powder, and by means of spirits of wine or ether, stick it all over the inside of a clear glass phial, and stop it with a good cork and sealing wax. If this phial be kept in a darkened room, (which for this experiment must be very dark,) it will give out no light; but let two or three strong sparks be drawn from the prime-conductor, while the phial is kept about two inches distant from the sparks, so that it may be exposed to their light, and the phial will afterwards appear luminous for some time. The powder may be stuck on a board by means of the white of an egg, so as to represent figures of planets, letters &c. at the operator’s pleasure, and these figures may be illuminated in the dark in the same manner as the phial, [for the method of making this phosphorus, see appendix, No. 5.]

86

CHAP. III. Experiments with Charged Electrics.

Experiments with charged electrics should always be made with caution, for though the discharge of a small phial through the body is seldom attended with bad consequences, yet that of a battery is always dangerous, and sometimes mortal. The operator should therefore be attentive, not only to the experiments he is about to perform, but also to the persons who may happen to be with him, forbidding them to come near any part of the apparatus.

EXPERIMENTS.

The Magic Picture.

This experiment was contrived by Mr. Kinnersley, and is thus described by Dr. Franklin.

Having a large mezzotinto with a frame and glass, (suppose of the king) take out the print and cut out a pannel of it, near two inches distant from the frame, all round. If the cut is through the picture it is not the worse. With thin paste or gum water fix the border that is cut off on the inside of the glass, pressing it smooth and close. Then fill up the vacancy, by gilding the glass well with leaf gold or brass. Gild likewise the inner edge of the back of the frame all round, except the top part. Make a communication between that gilding, and the gilding behind the glass; then put in the board, and that side is finished. Turn up the glass and gild the foreside exactly over the back gilding, and 87when it is dry paste on the pannel of the picture which has been cut out, observing to bring the corresponding parts of the picture and border together, by which it will appear of a piece, as at first (only part of it is behind the glass, and part before it.) Hold the picture horizontally by the top, and place a little moveable gilt crown upon the king’s head. If now the picture be moderately electrified, and another person take hold of the frame with one hand, so that the fingers may touch the inside gilding, and with the other hand endeavour to take off the crown, he will receive a terrible blow. If the picture were highly charged the consequences might be as fatal as those of high treason; for when the spark is taken through a quire of paper, and the discharge of the picture is made through it, a fair hole will be perceived in every sheet, (though a quire of paper, is thought a good armour against the push of a sword, or even against a pistol bullet,) and the crack exceedingly loud. The operator who holds the picture by the upper end, (where the inside of the picture is not gilt,) to prevent its falling, feels nothing of the shock, and may touch the face of the picture without danger, which he pretends is a test of his loyalty.

If a ring of persons take the shock among them, the experiment is called “the conspirators.”

Colours changed by the Electric shock.

Mr. Cavallo accidentally observing that an electric spark, passing over the surface of a card painted red, marked it with a black stroke, was induced to try what would be the effect of sending shocks over cards painted with different colours; accordingly he painted several 88cards with different colours, and passed the discharge of a jar, containing about one foot of coated surface over them, the result of his experiments are the following—

Vermilion was marked with a strong black track, about one tenth of an inch wide. The streak was generally single, but sometimes divided in the middle.

Carmine received a faint and slender impression, of a purple colour.

Verdigris was shook off from the surface of the card, except when it was mixed with a strong gum water, in which case it received a very faint impression.

White lead was marked with a strong black track, but not so broad as that on the vermilion.

On the red lead there appeared only a slight mark, much like that on the carmine.

The other colours he tried were orpiment, gambooge, sap green, red ink, Persian blue, and some others which were compounds of the first, but they received no impression.

It has frequently been observed that, when a flash of lightning strikes the mast of a ship, it passes over those parts of the mast, which are covered with lampblack and tar, or painted with lampblack and oil, without the least injury; when at the same time it shatters the uncoated part so as to render the mast entirely useless.—This singular fact induced Cavallo to carry his investigations on the subject still farther, particularly with a view to determine something relative to the properties of lampblack and oil. But it will not be necessary here to enumerate all his experiments upon this subject. It is sufficient to state that the two following propositions are the result of his observations.

89“First—That a coat of oil paint over any substance defends it from the effects of an electric shock, that would otherwise injure it; but that it would by no means defend it from any shock whatever.^[17]

“Second—One colour does not seem preferable to another, if it is equal in substance and equally well mixed with oil—but that a thick coating affords a better defence than a thin one.”

To fire Spirit of wine.

Hang to the prime-conductor a short metallic rod, having a small ball at the end—then pour some spirit of wine, a little warmed, into a metallic spoon. Hold the spoon by the handle, in such a manner that the knob of the rod may be about an inch above the surface of the spirit.—In this situation, if by turning the cylinder a spark be made to pass to the spoon through the spirit, it will be set on fire.

It will generally be found more advantageous to fix a metallic dish, containing the spirit, upon the prime-conductor.

This experiment may be varied different ways, so as to render it very agreeable to a company of spectators. A person, for instance, standing upon an insulating stool, connected with the prime-conductor, may hold the spoon with the spirit, in his hand—another person, standing on the floor, may fire the spirit by bringing his finger within a small distance of it—or, 90instead of his finger he may use a piece of ice, which will make the experiment still more surprising.

To swell Clay, and break small Tubes.

Roll up a piece of soft clay in a small cylinder, and insert two wires, so that their ends within the tube may be about one fifth of an inch apart.—If a shock be sent through this clay, by connecting the wires with the coatings of a pretty large jar which has previously been charged, the clay will be inflated, by swelling in the middle.—If the clay be not very moist, it will be broken by the explosion, and the fragments thrown about the room.

To make this experiment with a little variation, take a piece of the stem of a tobacco pipe, or a glass tube (which will answer equally well,) and fill the bore with moist clay; then insert wires as in the preceding experiment, and send the shock through it. This tube will not fail to be broken, and the pieces thrown to a considerable distance.

To pierce Cards &c. with the electric Explosion.

Hold a card or the cover of a book, close to the outside coating of a jar, then by applying one end of the discharging rod to the card, discharge the jar; the electricity rushing through the circuit from the positive to the negative coating, will pierce a hole through the card, or book-cover. This hole will be larger or smaller as the card is more or less moist. The card, upon examination, will be found to have a sulphureous or rather 91phosphoreal smell. It is remarkable in this experiment that there is a burr raised on both sides of the card.

Insects may be killed in this manner. If they are quite small the shock of a common phial will be found sufficient to deprive them of life: but if they are large, they will, upon receiving the shock, appear dead, but after a short time recover.—This however depends upon the quantity of the charge sent through them.

The shock of a jar, sent through a lump of white sugar, if strong enough to break it, will illuminate every part of the sugar, and this illumination will continue a short time after making the experiment.

To light a Candle by the discharge of a Jar.

Take a wire about the size of a common knitting needle, and by means of a small flexible chain, let one end communicate with the outside coating of a jar, containing at least ten inches of coated surface. To the other end of the wire some cotton must be twisted very loosely, so as to cover the extremity of the wire completely. The cotton must be rolled or sprinkled with powdered rosin. Now let the jar be charged and bring the cotton to its knob pretty quickly, so that the discharge may pass through the rosin on it; the cotton will instantly inflame, and will last long enough to light a candle.

Paper, dipped in a solution of nitre and water, and previously dried, may be fired in the same manner, and by this a brimstone match may be lighted. The same effect will follow, if you grease the cotton with a little sweet-oil, or moisten it with turpentine.—Flame may be again excited in a candle recently blown out, by 92simply passing the discharge of a jar through the wick and smoke.

CHAP. IV. Experiments relating to the influence of pointed Bodies on Electricity.

These experiments, though not the most entertaining are certainly among the most important in electricity. By the knowledge of them, mankind have received the greatest practical advantage. But as we have already treated of this subject, we shall, in this chapter, describe only two experiments which may serve to set it in a clearer light, and which may, in a more particular manner, demonstrate the utility of affixing pointed conductors to buildings, in order to preserve them from the dreadful effects of lightning.

EXPERIMENTS.

The electrified Cotton.

Take a small lock of cotton, extended in every direction as much as can conveniently be done, and by a linen thread about five or six inches long, fasten it to the prime-conductor; then let the cylinder of the machine be turned—the lock of cotton, by the repellency of its filaments, will immediately swell and stretch itself towards the nearest uninsulated conductor. In this situation, if you present your knuckle or a knobbed wire towards the cotton, it will immediately move towards it, and endeavour to touch it; now with the other 93hand present a pointed wire to it:—the cotton will immediately shrink up, and fly towards the prime-conductor. Remove the point, and the cotton will again approach the knuckle or knobbed wire—present the point, and it will again recede.

This experiment shows that a point is the proper termination for a lightning rod. For the cotton will represent the cloud, and the two wires, the lightning rods with different terminations.

The cotton is attracted by the knuckle or knobbed wire, in order to part with its electricity, this however cannot be effected unless they come so near as to touch one another, and then the discharge is effected at once. But the point is capable of drawing off the electricity when at a distance, and it does this gradually; at the same time that it causes a current of air which repels the cotton; the cotton being deprived of its electricity is again attracted by the prime-conductor.

The electrified Bladder.

Coat a bladder that is well blown, with gold, silver, or brass leaf, which may be fastened on with gum water.—Suspend this bladder at the end of a silk thread, six or seven feet long, from the ceiling of the room. Electrify the bladder by giving it a few sparks from a charged jar, and hold towards it, at some distance, a knobbed wire; you will perceive that the bladder approaches the knob, and when it comes within striking distance, gives it the electricity it received from the charged jar, and thus becomes discharged. Touch it again with the charged phial, and instead of the knobbed wire, present the point of a needle towards it, the 94bladder will now be rather repelled than attracted, especially if the point be very suddenly presented to it.

CHAP. V. Promiscuous Experiments.

We shall in this chapter, describe a variety of experiments, which are easily made, and which may serve to illustrate the principles of electricity in general.

EXPERIMENTS.

The electrical Jack.

This is an invention of Dr. Franklin, and turns with considerable force, so that it may sometimes be used for the purposes of a common jack. The construction of it is as follows.—A slender shaft of wood passes, at right angles, through the centre of a thin, round board, about twelve inches in diameter, and turns upon a sharp point of iron, fixed in the lower end; while a strong wire in the upper end passes through a hole in a brass plate, which keeps the shaft truly vertical. About thirty radii, of equal length, made of sash glass, cut into narrow slips, issue horizontally from the circumference of the round board, the ends farthest from the centre, being about four inches apart, and each furnished with a metallic ball or thimble.

If the wire of a jar, electrified in the common way, be brought near the circumference of the wheel, it will attract the nearest ball or thimble, and put the wheel in motion. That ball or thimble, passing by the knob of 95the jar, receives a spark from it, and being thereby electrified, is repelled, and driven forward; while the second, being attracted, approaches the knob, receives a spark from it, and is driven after the first. This process is repeated till the wheel has made one revolution; when the thimbles, before electrified, approaching the wire, instead of being attracted are repelled, and the motion presently ceases.—But if another jar, charged through the coating, or otherwise electrified negatively, be placed near the same wheel, its wire will attract the thimble or ball, repelled by the first jar, and thereby double the force which carries round the wheel.

The self-charging Tube.

Take a glass tube, about eighteen inches long, and an inch, or an inch and a half, in diameter; coat the inside with tin-foil, from one extremity of it as far as the middle; then fix a cork to the aperture of the coated end, and let a knobbed wire pass through it, and come in contact with the coating.

The instrument being thus prepared, hold it in one hand by the uncoated part, and with the hand clean and dry, or with a piece of buckskin, which has had some amalgam spread upon it, rub the outside of the coated part; after every two or three strokes, you must remove the rubbing hand, and by applying it to the knobbed wire, you will receive sparks from it. By this means the coated end will gradually acquire a charge, which may be increased to a considerable degree. Now, if you grasp the outside of the coated end with one hand, and touch the knobbed wire with the other, you will receive a shock.

96In this experiment, the coated part of the tube answers the double purpose of the electrical machine and Leyden phial; the uncoated part serving as a handle, to hold the instrument by. The friction on the outside accumulates a quantity of positive electricity upon it, and this electricity, in virtue of its sphere of action, forces out a quantity from the inside. Then, by taking the sparks from the knobbed wire, this inside electricity is removed, and it consequently remains under-charged, or negatively electrified; and it also follows, that the positive electricity of the outside, comes closer to the surface of the glass, and begins to form the charge.

A small phial may be charged by giving the sparks from the knobbed wire of the tube to that of the phial; but the phial will be charged negatively, whereas the tube is charged positively.

To fire the electrical Cannon by inflammable Air.

This instrument consists of a metallic barrel, made in the shape of a common cannon,—a glass tube is cemented into the top of the barrel, in the place of a touch-hole, and through this tube a wire passes, which is bent so as to come within an eighth of an inch of the inner surface of the cannon,—on the outer end of this wire, a ball is fixed, which serves to receive a spark from a charged jar, or from the prime-conductor.

The inflammable air with which this cannon is to be fired, may be prepared in a common porter bottle, by mixing a handful of iron filings with two wine-glassfuls of water, and an ounce of sulphuric acid, commonly called oil of vitriol. The air when thus made should be kept in a bottle closely stopped.

97To use the instrument, have ready a cork, fitted to the mouth of the cannon,—uncork the bottle containing the air, and immediately apply the cannon to the mouth of the bottle; a sufficient quantity of the gas will rise into the cannon, in the course of a few seconds, when both the cannon and bottle must be corked. Now, if the knob of the wire passing through the tube be applied to the prime-conductor, so that a spark may pass through it to the inner surface of the cannon, the gas will be inflamed with a loud report, and the cork will be forced out with considerable violence.

Curious Figures made upon Glass, Paper, and other Substances, by means of Electricity.

Professor Lichtenburg first observed some curious figures made with pulverized rosin, on a large electrophorus; but since this original discovery, a variety of other methods have been contrived, for making them upon glass, paper, resinous substances and many others. The ingenious electrician may derive considerable information from these figures; their various appearances, in many instances, showing him the direction and quality of the electric fluid.

The principal method of making these impressions is to electrify a perfect or imperfect electric, and then to throw certain powders upon the electrified substance, which will be arranged in different forms. The most convenient method of projecting these powders is to put them into a small bottle of India-rubber, and then fasten a tube of glass or metal to the neck of the bottle; the orifice of this tube must be covered with a piece of flannel when used.

98As to the nature of the powders, almost every substance which can be pulverized will do.—Thus chalk, rosin, sulphur, rose-pink, dragon’s blood, gum-arabic, lake, and evaporated decoctions of colouring woods, may be used with advantage, either singly or mixed.

Take a clean pane of glass, fourteen or fifteen inches square, and after drying it thoroughly, hold it by one corner, and pass over its surface the knob of a jar, moderately charged with positive electricity—then, keeping it suspended, project upon it, by means of the bottle above described, a mixed powder of dragon’s blood and gum-arabic, in equal parts. If you examine the glass, you will find that the two powders will be separated upon it, the red powder of dragon’s blood falling on certain places, and the white powder of gum-arabic falling upon certain other places, so as to form a track upon the parts which were touched with the charged jar, consisting of two colours disposed in a thousand different ways.

If, instead of drawing the knob of the jar over the surface of the glass, you only touch it here and there with it, and then throw on the mixed powders as before, separate star-shaped figures will be formed about these places. The stars will be better defined when a single powder is used; their rays are sometimes few and strong; at others, many and slight, and frequently they do not go entirely round the parts which have been touched by the phial. These different effects depend chiefly upon the quantity of the charge in the jar.

If the jar be charged negatively, the appearances will be very different, from those occasioned by positive electricity. Very few rays will now be observed, the powders for the most part disposing themselves in round 99figures, and generally a central spot of one powder will be surrounded by another of a different colour.

Some powders adhere but slightly to the glass, so as not to bear being touched; but if a piece of paper be laid upon the painted side, without disturbing the figures, and the edge of it be fastened all round to the edge of the glass, the figure may be preserved without injury. But a better method is to lay another pane of glass over the one with the figures upon it, and then to fasten them together with sealing-wax, or a piece of paper pasted over the edges.

If the powders of such colours as are used for enamel-painting be projected upon glass or porcelain, and these substances be afterwards exposed to a proper degree of heat, as that of an enameller’s furnace, the figures will be rendered indelible.

Take a piece of common writing paper, and hold it near the fire, so as to make it quite dry and very hot—lay it upon a dry table and pass the knob of a charged jar over it—then take up the paper by one corner, and holding it suspended, throw upon it a mixed powder of dragon’s blood and gum-arabic, in the way above mentioned.—The figures in this instance will be very beautiful, and may be made in various shapes, as letters, stars, or stripes. If the paper thus painted be held near the fire for a few seconds, the powder of dragon’s blood, being a resinous substance, will be melted and fastened to the paper, after which the gum-arabic may be taken off.

Powders of different colours may be projected upon the paper after the same manner, but unless they be of a resinous nature, so as to be easily melted by heat, it is very difficult to fasten them to the paper.

100A little experience will enable the operator to make them in a neat and handsome manner. It will however be necessary to observe a few precautions.—The charge of the jar should not be too great or too small; for in the former case the figures will be confused and irregular; and in the latter they will be too faint.—These experiments should be performed as quickly as possible, for if the paper be suffered to cool too much, or the communicated electricity be dissipated, the desired effect will not be produced.

The Electrified Capillary Syphon.

Let a small bucket of metal be suspended from the prime-conductor, and put into it a syphon of glass or metal, so narrow at the outer extremity that the water may just drop from it.—Now, if the cylinder be turned, the water, which when not electrified came over only in drops, will run in a stream, or even be subdivided into a number of smaller ones.—If the experiment be made in the dark, the streams appear luminous.

The same phenomenon may be exhibited by a small bucket, with a jet pipe fixed in the bottom. This must be hung on the prime-conductor, as in the last experiment: or the experiment may be agreeably varied, by hanging one bucket from a positively, and another from a negatively electrified conductor: so that the two jets may be about three inches from each other.—The stream issuing from the one will be attracted by that issuing from the other, and both will unite into one: but, though both are luminous in the dark, before meeting, after this has taken place they will not be so, unless 101one of them was more powerfully electrified than the other.

The Lateral Explosion.

If a jar be discharged with a rod which has no electric handle, the hand which holds the rod, on making the discharge, frequently feels something similar to a shock, especially when the charge is considerable.—This shock, or lateral explosion, as it has been called, may be rendered visible in the following manner.—Connect a chain with the outside coating of a charged jar—then discharge the jar through another circuit; for instance, a discharging rod—The chain which is connected with the outside coating, but which forms no part of the circuit, will appear lucid in the dark; that is, sparks will be seen at every link. This chain will also appear lucid, if it be only put close to the jar, without touching it; and on making the discharge a spark will be seen between the coating and the end of the chain. This luminous appearance is what has been denominated the Lateral explosion.

To represent the Constellations.

Provide yourself with a piece of paste-board, of the size you intend the figure of the constellation, (four or five inches square will be found convenient) and cover one side with tin-foil or silvered paper. Let needles, or any other small metallic points, project from the other side of the paste-board, from the places where you intend stars to appear, taking care to form a communication between each of the points, or needles, and the 102tin-foil on the other side. If the instrument thus prepared be fixed upon the prime-conductor, negatively electrified, all the points will be illuminated at once.—The experiment may be performed with the prime-conductor positively electrified; but in this case, the light at the points, being in the shape of a divergent cone, does not appear so proper to represent stars, as the round globular lights, which are characteristic of points negatively electrified.—It is scarcely necessary to remark that this experiment should be performed in a darkened room.

The Electrical Snake.

Cut a circular piece of silvered paper into a spiral form. The outer end must be shaped like a serpent’s head, with the mouth open and the tongue protruded. Then provide an upright shaft of wood or metal, terminating upward in a point, and having the lower extremity fastened in a foot or bottom-board. The snake, being put spirally round the shaft, with its tail on the point, and then placed under a metallic point suspended from the prime-conductor, will turn round, and in a darkened room will appear to spit fire.

The luminous Shower.

Electrify a common tumbler, by passing a chain, communicating with the prime-conductor, over its inner surface. Place a small heap of steel or brass-filings on an uninsulated conductor, and invert the electrified tumbler over it: the filings will be attracted up the sides of the tumbler, and then thrown off. This, at night, 103forms a very beautiful experiment, as the filings become luminous, and appear like a shower of fire.

If a tumbler, electrified in this way, be inverted over pith balls, instead of brass-filings, the balls will leap with surprising velocity up the sides of it.

The luminous Discharging-rod.

Provide a glass tube in the shape of a common discharging-rod, about ten inches in length, and let the bore of the tube be nearly the eighth of an inch in diameter; upon one end fasten with cement, or otherwise, a brass knob, so as to be perfectly air tight. Now expel the air from the tube, by heat or the air pump, and then fix another knob upon the open end, in a way similar to the former.

If the instrument be used as the common discharging-rod, it will be found to answer its purposes equally well; while at the same time all the inner surface of the tube, during the discharge of a jar with it, is beautifully luminous.

Mr. Nairne also contrived a luminous discharging-rod. It consisted of an arched glass tube, with a metallic ball at each end, and a communication from one ball to the other was made by a brass chain, which passed through the bore of the tube.—In the discharge of a jar with it, small sparks are seen between the links of the chain within the tube.—Both these dischargers should have handles fastened to them.

To decompose Water by Electricity.

Let a glass tube, having a small bore, be filled with water; then close each end of the tube with a piece 104of cork, and let two wires pass through the corks, so that their extremities may come pretty near each other within the tube.

If sparks of electricity be made to pass between the ends of the wires, within the tube, the water will be converted into oxygen and hydrogen gases.

If this process be continued till the extremities of the wires become immersed in the two gases, they will explode and again form water.

The Electrified Fountain.

Insulate a small fountain made of metal, (one on the construction of Hiero’s will be found most convenient,) and connect it with the prime-conductor—put it in operation—the jet will be undivided, except at the top—now turn the cylinder, and you will immediately perceive the jet divided much lower than at first; the drops, which before fell nearly perpendicularly, will now be thrown off in elliptical lines, and attracted by any conductor brought near them. A small Leyden phial may be charged at the top of the jet, which will present the curious spectacle of fire coming out of water.

105

EPITOME

OF

ELECTRICITY.

DIVISION III.

CHAP. I. Introductory Observations to the theory of Electricity.

There is scarcely any thing to which an inquisitive mind, such as a philosopher possesses, submits with more reluctance, than to the inability of assigning the causes of the most interesting appearances or phenomena of nature. That every effect has a cause, is a first or self evident principle, and the mind is not easily brought to acquiesce in its utter ignorance of the cause, when the effect is visible and striking.—From this circumstance proceeded the numerous wild, fanciful, and delusive systems of natural philosophy, which existed before the time of the great Lord Bacon.—His penetrating and discriminating mind saw that nothing solid could ever be achieved in that noble science, unless such a procedure were relinquished;—unless men would consent to confess their ignorance of causes which were actually unknown;—unless they would 106cease to rely on hypotheses, however plausible, until they were verified by experiment;—consent to take facts as they are found, and by experiments alone endeavour to ascend to their causes. On this immoveable base the Newtonian philosophy is founded, and it will of course prove as durable as nature herself.

Two things, however, in regard to this subject, are of some importance to be remarked.—The first is, that experiments may sometimes be supposed to ascertain causes which will afterwards be found not to exist, or to be wrongly assigned; because the experiments had not been accurately or extensively made.

The second remark is, that though hypotheses are not to be taken for philosophy, till they have stood the test of experiment; yet in the process of the mind in making discoveries, hypothesis is perhaps always used, where the discovery is not merely accidental. No man can rationally make experiments till he has conceived a notion, supposition, or hypothesis in his mind, which he imagines experiment may serve to verify.—It is this which prompts him to his researches and guides him in conducting them.

In regard to electricity, it is remarked by Dr. Priestley, that “no other part of the whole compass of philosophy affords so fine a scene for ingenious speculation. Here the imagination may have full play, in conceiving of the manner in which an invisible agent produces an almost infinite variety of visible effects. As the agent is invisible every philosopher is at liberty to make it whatever he pleases, and ascribe to it such properties and powers as are convenient for his purpose. And, indeed, if he can frame his theory so as really to suit all the facts, it 107has all the evidence of truth, that the nature of things can admit.”

For ourselves we are by no means satisfied that there is yet any theory of electricity which will “suit all the facts;” and therefore if this be requisite to entitle a theory philosophy, as contra-distinguished from hypothesis, we must think that the best theory of electricity is yet hypothesis, and not philosophy. We believe that the Franklinian theory accounts for more facts, and is far more plausible, than any other. But, as we have already had occasion to remark in a former chapter, it does not appear to us fully and satisfactorily to account for all the phenomena of electric attraction and repulsion. Dr. Franklin always spoke with great diffidence of his own theory, and always denominated it an hypothesis.

“Every appearance, says he, which I have seen, in which glass and electricity are concerned, are, I think explained with ease by this hypothesis. Yet, perhaps, it may not be a true one, and I shall be obliged to him who affords me a better.” In like manner Æpinus, who adopted the theory of Franklin, and who has illustrated its leading principles in a far more masterly and scientific manner than any other writer, still denominates the theory which he maintains an hypothesis. Why should pupils affect to go farther than their masters? We think that the theory of electricity is still an hypothesis. We are however clearly of opinion that the hypothesis of Franklin is preferable to every other. We have therefore adopted it in the whole of our system, and mean to close this division of our subject by giving it, somewhat in detail, with the leading facts and considerations by which its claim to superiority appears to us to be supported. 108In the mean time, as every student of electricity may wish to know, and ought to know, what other theories have been adopted, we shall fill the following chapter with a brief and compendious recital of some of the principal of them.—It would be endless to recite them all. We shall, however, enter into no extensive argument to prove their fallacy, as this would be inconsistent with our plan, as well as unprofitable in itself. We shall afterwards say what we can to confirm the theory of Franklin, and if we succeed, every thing opposed to it, must, of course, appear to be unsupported.

CHAP. II. Theories of Electricity, exclusive of that of Franklin.

The first electricians supposed that the attraction of electric substances, was caused by certain unctuous effluvia, emitted from these substances when they were excited. Such effluvia were supposed to fasten upon all bodies which fell in their way, and if not too heavy, to carry them back to the emitting substances. For at that time, all effluvia were supposed to return to the bodies whence they had been emitted; because they could not otherwise account for the fact, that such substances were not sensibly wasted by emitting effluvia. But when the subtilty of light was demonstrated by Newton, and that of the effluvia of many bodies was better understood, philosophers gave up the doctrine of the return of effluvia, both with regard to electricity and other subjects.

2. They applied to electricity the general, but unknown principles of attraction and repulsion—properties 109which they supposed to be immediately communicated by the Creator to certain bodies. But the laws of this attraction and repulsion, in regard to electricity, we do not know that they attempted to explain.

3. Mr. Du Faye discovered the two opposite species of electricity, which he termed the vitreous and the resinous, because one was found in glass and the other in rosin, sealing-wax, &c. He immediately adopted the theory of two distinct electric fluids, repulsive with respect to themselves, and attractive of one another. But he did not know at this time, that both these species were concerned in every electrical operation, and that glass or rosin alone always produces both of them. When he found that electric appearances took place at an insulated rubber, and it was demonstrated that the action of the rubber did not produce, but only collect the electric fluid, he perceived that both electricities, as they had heretofore been called, were produced at the same time, by one and the same electric; and with a candour that does him honour, he gave up his theory, and embraced that of Franklin, which was first suggested about this time.

4. With some, and particularly Mr. Wilson, the chief agent in all electrical operations is Sir Isaac Newton’s ether; which is supposed to be more or less dense in all bodies, in proportion to the smallness of their pores, except that it is much denser in sulphureous and unctuous bodies. To this ether are ascribed the principal phenomena of attraction and repulsion. “On this theory, (says Dr. Priestley) I shall make no particular remarks, because I cannot say that I clearly comprehend it.”

1105. The ingenious Abbè Nollet, whose theory has been more the subject of debate than all the others, before Dr. Franklin’s, supposes that in all electrical operations the fluid, (of which he admits there is but one) is thrown into two opposite motions; that the affluence of this matter drives all light bodies before it, by impulse, upon the electrified body; and that its effluence carries them back again. But he seems very much embarrassed in accounting for facts where both these currents must be considered as taking place at the same time, and in finding out expedients to prevent their impeding and interrupting the effects of each other. To obviate this great difficulty, he supposes that every excited electric, and likewise every body to which electricity is communicated, has two orders or kinds of pores, one for the emission of the effluvia, and the other for the reception of them.

The Abbè maintained this hypothesis with a zeal and ingenuity worthy of a better cause. For it is manifest at once, that the existence of such kinds of different pores in bodies, is a mere gratuitous assumption. Our senses do not inform us of the existence of any such pores, nor have we evidence of any kind that they even exist at all, unless we consider it as evidence of their existence, that they are necessary to account for the appearances on which the Abbè grounds his theory.

Yet this theory, with some modification, has been strenuously maintained, and has its advocates to the present day. They say that “in bodies positively electrified, there is a flux of electric matter, from their surface all round; that is, the fluid contained in their pores pushes out on every side, and communicates a similar motion to the electric fluid contained in the adjacent 111atmosphere. This must of necessity very soon exhaust the body of its electric matter altogether, if it was not instantaneously supplied after every emission. But this supply is immediately procured from the surrounding atmosphere. The quantity sent off is instantaneously returned from the air, and a vibratory motion or struggle between the air and electric fluid, immediately takes place. The positive electricity therefore consists in a vibratory motion in the air and electric fluid; and the force of the vibration is directed outwards from the electrified body. In bodies negatively electrified, the fluid contained in the neighbouring atmosphere is directed towards the body so electrified. But it is certain, that this motion inwards cannot be continued unless there is also a motion of the fluid outwards from the body. In this case also, there is a vibratory motion, but the force of it is directed inwards, and as the source of it lies not in the body, but in the surrounding atmosphere, it manifests itself somewhat less vigorously.” We have taken this account of the modification of the Abbè Nollet’s theory from one who firmly believed it. But we cannot pretend to controvert it, because, (as Dr. Priestley says,) “we cannot say that we clearly comprehend it.”

6. There are some who explain the phenomena of electricity upon chemical principles. They also believe in the existence of two distinct and positive fluids; but instead of a mechanical operation, they consider all their sensible effects as arising from chemical affinity and union. The following may serve as a specimen of chemical electricity. It is said—

(1.) “There are two kinds of electric ether, which exist either separately or in combination. That which is accumulated on the surface of smooth glass, when rubbed 112with a cushion, is here termed vitreous ether; and that which is accumulated on the surface of resin, or sealing-wax, when rubbed in like manner, is here termed resinous ether; and a combination of them, as in their usual state, may be termed neutral electric ethers.

(2.) Atmospheres of vitreous, or of resinous, or of neutral electricity, surround all separate bodies, are attracted by them and permeate those which are called conductors, as metallic, aqueous, and carbonic substances; but will not permeate those which are called non-conductors, as air, glass, silk, resin, sulphur.

(3.) The particles of vitreous ether, strongly repel each other, but attract the particles of resinous ether and vice versa. When the two electric ethers unite, a chemical explosion occurs, in some respects like that of gun-powder, light and heat are liberated, and rend or fuse the bodies which they occupy.

(4.) Glass holds within it, in combination, much resinous electric ether, which constitutes a part of it, and which more forcibly attracts vitreous electric ether, from surrounding bodies which stand on it, mixed with a less proportion of resinous ether, like an atmosphere, but cannot unite with the resinous ether, which is combined with the glass. And resin, on the contrary, holds within it, in combination, much vitreous electric ether, which constitutes a part of it, and which more forcibly attracts resinous electric ether from surrounding bodies, which stand on it, mixed with a less proportion of vitreous ether, like an atmosphere, but cannot unite with the vitreous ether which is combined with the resin.

(5.) Hence the non-conductors of electricity are of two kinds, and opposite to each other; the one class of the 113vitreous, and the other of the resinous. But the most perfect conductor, such as metal, water and charcoal, having neither kind of electric ether, combined with them, though surrounded with both, suffer both kinds to pass through them easily.

(6.) Great accumulation or condensation of the separate electric ethers, attract each other so strongly that they will break a passage through non-conducting bodies. Hence trees and stone walls are rent by lightning.

(7.) When artificial or natural accumulations of these separate ethers are in a very small quantity or intensity, they pass slowly and with difficulty from one body to another, and require the best conductors for this purpose. Whence many of the phenomena of the Torpedo, the Gymnotus, and of Galvanism.

(8.) The electric ethers may be separately accumulated, by the contact of conductors with non-conductors—by vicinity of the two ethers—by heat—and by decomposition.

(9.) When these two ethers unite suddenly and with explosion, a liberation of light and heat takes place, as in all chemical explosions. Accordingly it is said that a smell is perceptible from electric sparks, and even a taste, which must be supposed to arise from new combinations or decompositions.”

The theory founded on the principles above stated is supposed, by those who adopt it, to solve many difficulties which can scarcely be accounted for on the theory of Franklin.

Dr. Gibbes also adopts a chemical theory of electricity. He supposes that oxygen gas is produced by the union of positive electricity with water; and hydrogen 114gas by the union of negative electricity with water: and that water, uniting in different proportions with the two electricities, is the ponderable part of all the elastic fluids. He asserts that by the positive electricity metals are oxydated, and blue vegetable colours reddened; and also that the acidifying effect of electric commotions in the atmosphere, on weak fermented liquors, is unquestionable.—On the other hand, according to this writer, by negative electricity the vegetable blue is restored, and the oxydated metal revived.

These circumstances, among others, led Dr. Gibbes to conclude that when hydrogen gas is produced by the affusion of water on red-hot metal, and the metal is at the same time oxydated, a decomposition of fire rather than of water has taken place; that the hot metal has parted with negative electricity, which, uniting with a small proportion of the water, has formed hydrogen gas; that a greater proportion of the water has united with the positive electricity, and entered, as oxygen gas, into combination with the metal. When the two gases are inflamed together, the spark attracts to itself, in due proportions, the two electricities contained in the two gases, which unite with explosion, and produce fire. The water with which they were before combined is of course deposited.

The reason why inflammable substances burn in oxygen gas, and not in hydrogen, Dr. Gibbes supposes to be, that negative electricity greatly prevails in all inflammable substances. Neither of the gases can be inflamed separately, because fire depends on the union of the two electricities; and such union cannot be effected unless both are present in due proportion.

115Dr. Gibbes supposes that the further illustration of the effects of the two electricities, as chemical agents, will set aside some of the leading doctrines of the Lavoisierian theory, and afford an easy solution of certain phenomena which that theory cannot explain.

Æpinus’ Theory of Electricity.

Mr. Æpinus, of the imperial academy of Petersburgh, has attempted to class the phenomena of electricity and magnetism in a mathematical method. In the course of his works he gives some views of the subject which are new and highly ingenious, and as some good judges suppose, calculated to surmount many difficulties, and to answer many questions, which occur in considering the Franklinian theory. The leading principles of his plan are comprehended in the following propositions.

1. Its particles repel each other, with a force decreasing as the squares of the distances increase.

2. Its particles attract the particles of some ingredients in all other bodies, with a force decreasing according to the same law, with an increase of distance; and that this attraction is mutual.

3. The electric fluid is dispersed in the pores of other bodies, and moves with various degrees of facility through the pores of different kinds of matter. In those bodies which we call non-electrics, such as water or metals, it moves without any perceivable obstruction; but in glass, resin, and all bodies called electrics, it moves with very great difficulty, or is altogether immoveable.

4. The phenomena of electricity are of two kinds: 1. Such as arise from the actual motion of the fluid, 116from a body containing more, to one containing less of it. 2. Such as do not immediately arise from this transference, but are instances of its attraction and repulsion.—

These principles are applied at great length, and with a pleasing degree of precision, by the ingenious theorist, to the Leyden phial, and to the various phenomena of electric attraction and repulsion. It will be readily seen that Æpinus adopts, in substance, the theory of Franklin, of which, in some particulars, he presents new and more satisfactory views than the American philosopher. In the sixty first volume of the Philosophical Transactions, there is a dissertation by the Hon. Mr. Cavendish on this subject, which he considers as an extension and more accurate application of Æpinus’s theory.

CHAP. III. The Franklinian Theory of Electricity.

We are now to give Dr. Franklin’s theory of plus and minus, or positive and negative electricity, and adduce facts, to shew how far this theory will go to explain the different phenomena.

The Doctor supposed that all the operations in electricity, depended upon one fluid, sui generis, extremely subtile and elastic.—That there subsists a very strong repulsion between the particles of this fluid, in regard to one another, and as strong an attraction, with regard to other matter.—Thus one quantity of electric matter will repel another quantity of the same, but will attract, and be attracted by, any terrestrial matter that happens to be near it. The pores of all bodies are supposed 117to be full of this subtile fluid; and when its equilibrium is not disturbed, that is, when there is neither more nor less of it in a body than its natural share, or than it is capable of retaining by its own attraction, the fluid does not manifest itself to our senses. The action of the rubber upon an electric disturbs this equilibrium, occasioning a redundancy of the fluid in one place, and a deficiency of it in another. This equilibrium being forcibly disturbed, the mutual repulsion of the particles of the fluid is necessarily exerted to restore it. If two bodies be both of them over-charged, the electric atmospheres repel one another, and both the bodies recede from each other, to places where the fluid is less dense.—For as there is supposed to be a mutual attraction between all bodies and the electric matter, such bodies as are electrified must go along with their atmospheres. If both bodies are exhausted of their natural share of this fluid, they are both attracted by the denser fluid, existing either in the atmosphere contiguous to them, or in other neighbouring bodies; which occasions them still to recede from one another, as if they were over-charged.

Dr. Franklin’s theory has gained the greatest reputation, from the easy solution it affords of all the phenomena of the Leyden phial. The fluid is supposed to move with the greatest ease in bodies which are conductors; but with extreme difficulty in electrics per se; in so much that glass is absolutely impermeable to it. It is also supposed that all electrics, and particularly glass, on account of the smallness of their pores, do at all times contain an exceedingly great, and always an equal quantity of this fluid; so that no more can be thrown 118into any one part of any electric substance, except the same quantity go out at another, and the gain be exactly equal to the loss. These things being premised, the phenomena of charging and discharging a plate of glass, or a Leyden phial, may be easily solved. In the usual manner of electrifying by a smooth glass globe or cylinder, all the electric matter is supplied by the rubber, from all the bodies which communicate with it. If it be made to communicate with nothing but one of the coatings of a glass plate, while the prime-conductor is connected with the other, that side of the glass which communicates with the rubber, must necessarily be exhausted in order to supply the conductor, which must convey the whole of it to the coating with which it is connected. By this operation, therefore, the electric fluid becomes almost entirely exhausted from one side of the plate, while it is as much accumulated on the other; and the discharge is made by the electric fluid rushing, as soon as an opportunity is given it by means of proper conductors, from the side which was overloaded to that which was exhausted.

It is not however necessary to this theory, that the same individual particles of electric matter which were thrown upon one side of the plate, should make the whole circuit of the intervening conductors, especially in very great distances, so as actually to arrive at the exhausted side. It may be sufficient to suppose, that the additional quantity of fluid displaces and occupies the place of an equal portion of the natural quantity of fluid, belonging to those conductors in the circuit which lay contiguous to the charged side of the glass. This displaced fluid may drive forwards an equal quantity of the same matter in the next conductor; and thus 119the progress may continue, till the exhausted side of the glass is supplied by the fluid naturally existing in the conductors contiguous to it.

To account for the velocity with which electricity passes through good conductors, Dr. Franklin compares the electricity in the conductors, to a wire in the bore of a tube, which it exactly fills.—If one end of this wire be moved forward, every other part of it will move in the same direction, and at the same instant.

Dr. Priestley says, it may be thought a difficulty upon this hypothesis, that one of the sides of a glass plate cannot be exhausted, without the other receiving more than its natural share; particularly as the particles of this fluid are supposed to be repulsive of one another. But it must be considered, that the attraction of the glass is sufficient to retain even the large quantity of electric fluid which is natural to it, against all attempts to withdraw it, unless that eager attraction can be satisfied by the admission of an equal quantity from some other quarter. When this opportunity of a supply is given by connecting one of the coatings with the rubber and the other with the conductor, the two attempts, to introduce more of the fluid into one of the sides, and to subtract some from the other, are made, in a manner, at the same instant. The action of the rubber tends to disturb the equilibrium of the fluid in the glass; and no sooner has a spark quitted one of the sides to go to the rubber, than it is supplied by the conductor on the other; and the difficulty with which these additional particles move in the substance of the glass, effectually prevents its reaching the opposite exhausted side. It is not said, however, but that either side of the glass may give or receive a 120small quantity of the electric fluid, without altering the quantity on the opposite side. It is only a very considerable part of the charge that is meant, when one side is said to be filled while the other is exhausted.

The above is the substance of the theory most generally received. It depends upon the following principles.

1. All terrestrial substances, as well as the atmosphere which surrounds the earth, are full of electric matter.

2. Glass, and other electric substances, though they contain a great deal of electric matter, are nevertheless impermeable by it.

3. This electric matter violently repels itself, and attracts all other matter.

4. By the excitation of an electric, the equilibrium of the fluid contained in it is disturbed, and one part of it is overloaded with electricity, while the other contains too little.

5. Conducting substances are permeable to the electric matter through their whole substance, and do not conduct it merely over their surface.

6. Positive electricity is when a body has too much of the electric fluid, and negative electricity, when it has too little.

Of these positions we shall now adduce those proofs, drawn from different facts, which seem in the strongest manner to confirm them.

I. “All terrestrial substances, as well as the atmosphere which surrounds the earth, are full of electric matter.” The proofs of this are very easy. There is no place of the earth or sea where the electric fire may not be collected, by making a communication between it and the rubber of an electric machine. Therefore, considering 121that the whole earth is moist, and that moisture is a conductor of electricity, and that every part of the earth must thus communicate with another, it is certain that the electric matter must diffuse itself as far as the moisture of the earth reaches; and this may reasonably be supposed to be to the very centre.