AËRIAL NAVIGATION

A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE GROWTH OF AIR CRAFT AND ON AËRONAUTICAL METEOROLOGY

BY

Albert Francis Zahm, A.M., M.E., Ph.D.

SECRETARY OF THE AËRO CLUB OF WASHINGTON; GOVERNOR OF THE AËRO CLUB OF AMERICA; GENERAL SECRETARY OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES ON AËRIAL NAVIGATION IN 1893 AND 1907; OFFICIAL AMERICAN DELEGATE TO THE AËRONAUTIC CONGRESS OF 1900; FORMERLY LECTURER ON MECHANICS IN THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF STANDARDS, AND PROFESSOR OF MECHANICS IN THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA

NEW YORK AND LONDON D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1911

Copyright, 1911, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

Published September, 1911

Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE

The purpose of this work is to portray in popular terms the substantial progress of aëronautics from its earliest beginning to the present time. Beyond the introductory account, little note is taken of experiments, however picturesque or clever, which constitute no advance in the art, or lead to no useful result. At times some minutiæ are presented to complete the story of an important series of achievements; but the unproductive efforts of impractical zealots, however prominent or widely known in their day, receive scant, if any, attention. Failures and tragedies where introduced, are described for the lessons involved rather than for any curious interest investing them. The griefs and grotesque follies of aëronautic imbeciles form a long story, but a futile and unprofitable one, of slight concern in the evolutionary history of a veritable science.

A general history of aërial locomotion would naturally be divided into four parts, treating respectively of passive balloons, power balloons, passive flyers, and power flyers; but in this work a separate treatment has not been allotted to passive flyers because of their too backward state of development. Passive gliders which maneuver in the air merely by virtue of gravitational force, or acquired momentum, are familiar enough; but the much more interesting passive flyers of human construction, adapted to rise without motive power considerably beyond their initial level, or to soar far aloft, and sail long distances by virtue of favorable winds, are still in their infancy. It may be hoped, however, that the vulture’s art which now is well nigh overlooked, because of the triumphant advance of dynamic flight, will soon receive such attention that future treatises may relate human achievements in soaring that shall rival the dexterous and marvelous feats of the condor and albatross, even as the majestic sweep of the dynamic aëroplane now rivals the powerful rowing flight of the strongest birds of prey.

Following the story of the evolution of air ships, a brief account of the medium they navigate has been added. In particular, the circumstances which affect the density and motion of the air have been studied; for the density of the air determines the static lift of air ships; the density and speed of impact of the air together determine the dynamic lift and the resistance to progression; while the velocity of the air current conditions the possible speed of travel in any direction. It is important, therefore, that the aëronautical student should have some acquaintance with the general properties of the air which affect its density, and some knowledge of the generation and prevalence both of the great currents of the atmosphere, and of the local winds and invisible turmoils which so nearly concern the safety and effective progress of the aërial navigator.

The French units of measurement have been freely used, as well as the English. This seems advisable because the official rules and records of international aëronautic events are partly expressed in the metric system. Moreover, the navigation of a universal medium seems to call for such universal standards. Indeed a peculiar mission of world travel is to eliminate provincialism, and to promote universalism of thought, of sentiment, and of custom.

In order to lighten the book for the popular reader, some interesting historical facts and much important quantitative data are placed in the Appendices, where they may be available to the technical or special student.

It is a pleasant duty to acknowledge here my obligations to the U. S. Signal Corps, the Smithsonian Institution, and the U. S. Weather Bureau, for much assistance in collecting the materials for this work. Dr. W. J. Humphreys, of the U. S. Weather Bureau, has very kindly read the manuscript for the chapters on the atmosphere.

My thanks are due also to the Scientific American and to Aëronautics for the use of photographs for the illustrations, as also to the manufacturers of various aircraft, and to Mr. W. J. Hammer, Mr. Carl Dientsbach, and Mr. A. S. Levino.

A. F. Zahm.

Cosmos Club Washington, D. C., January, 1911.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

INTRODUCTION

Introduction 3

PART I

GROWTH OF AËROSTATION

I. —Early History of Passive Balloons 29

II. —Practical Development of Passive Balloons 54

III. —Early History of Power Balloons 78

IV. —Introduction of Gasoline-Driven Dirigibles 101

V. —Practical Development of Non-Rigid Dirigibles 115

VI. —Development of Rigid Dirigibles 145

PART II

GROWTH OF AVIATION

VII. —Model Flying Machines 173

VIII. —Nineteenth Century Man-Flyers 202

IX. —Aëroplanes of Adequate Stability and Power 235

X. —Advent of Public Flying 256

XI. —Strenuous Competitive Flying 283

XII. —Forcing the Art 307

PART III

AËRONAUTIC METEOROLOGY

XIII. —General Properties of Free Air 347

XIV. —General Distribution of Heat and Pressure 363

XV. —Permanent and Periodic Winds 376

XVI. —Cyclones, Tornadoes, Waterspouts 394

XVII. —Thunderstorms, Wind Gusts 422

APPENDICES

I. —Stress in a Vacuum Balloon 443

II. —Aëronautic Letters of Benjamin Franklin 446

III. —Successful Military Dirigible Balloons 456

IV. —The Relations of Weight, Speed, and Power of Flyers 478

V. —Curtiss’ Hydro-Aëroplane Experiments 481

INDEX 487

LIST OF PLATES

FACING PAGE

Plate I Glaisher and Coxwell. Parseval Kite Balloon. 66

Plate II Haenlein’s Gas-driven Dirigible. Wölfert’s Benzine-driven Dirigible. Santos-Dumont’s Dirigible, No. 16. 98

Plate III The Lebaudy. La Patrie. Lebaudy’s Morning Post. 116

Plate IV La Ville de Paris. Colonel Renard. 124

Plate V Zodiac III. Zodiac IV. 128

Plate VI La Belgique. Italian Military Dirigible No. I bis. 130

Plate VII Clément-Bayard I. Clément-Bayard II. 132

Plate VIII U. S. Signal Corps Dirigible I. Gross II. 138

Plate IX Parseval I. Parseval II. 140

Plate X Gross III. Zeppelin Airship Structure. 146

Plate XI Zeppelin Dirigible Resting on the Water. Zeppelin Dirigible over Zürich. 160

Plate XII Henson’s Aëroplane. Ader’s Aëroplane. 182

Plate XIII Stringfellow’s Aëroplane (Front). Stringfellow’s Aëroplane (Side). 186

Plate XIV Phillips’s Tethered Aëroplane. Phillips’s Aëroplane. 192

Plate XV Langley’s Steam Model. Langley’s Gasoline Model. Langley’s Two Surface Gasoline Model. 194

Plate XVI Lilienthal’s Monoplane Glider. Lilienthal’s Biplane Glider. Pilcher’s Monoplane Glider. 212

Plate XVII Chanute’s Five-Deck Glider. Herring in Chanute Biplane. Herring’s Compressed-air Biplane. 218

Plate XVIII Maxim’s Aëroplane. Langley’s Large Aëroplane. 226

Plate XIX First Wright Glider. Second Wright Glider. 246

Plate XX First Wright Aëroplane (Rear). First Wright Aëroplane (Side). 248

Plate XXI Montgomery’s Aëroplane. 252

Plate XXII Santos-Dumont’s Biplane. Santos-Dumont’s Demoiselle. 258

Plate XXIII Farman Biplane, 1908. Farman Biplane, 1909. Harmon in Farman Biplane. 260

Plate XXIV The Red Wing. Curtiss Biplane. Curtiss Biplane with Pontoons. 264

Plate XXV Blériot Flying Over Toury-Artenay Circuit. Blériot Monoplane No. VIII. Blériot Monoplane No. IX. 268

Plate XXVI Wright Biplane of 1908. Standard Wright Biplane of 1910. Wright Racing Biplane of 1910. 272

Plate XXVII Blériot XI with Moisant Aviator on Mexican Border. Blériot XII. 286

Plate XXVIII Antoinette Monoplane of 1909. Antoinette Monoplane of 1910. 288

Plate XXIX Esnault-Pélterie Monoplane, Early Pattern. Esnault-Pélterie Monoplane of 1910. 302

Plate XXX Grade Monoplane. Cody Biplane. 304

Plate XXXI Fabre Hydro-aëroplane. Paulhan Hydro-aëroplane. Moisant Metal Monoplane. 332

Plate XXXII Curtiss Starting from the Water. Curtiss Biplane for Land and Water. Curtiss Triplane Risen from the Water. 482

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT

FIG. PAGE

1. —Da Vinci’s designs for human flying-gear 9

2. —A possible air-scout 12

3. —Blanchard’s flying-machine 17

4. —Lana’s proposed vacuum balloon 24

5. —Montgolfier’s experimental balloon 34

6. —Charles’ first hydrogen balloon 36

7. —Montgolfier’s passenger balloon 39

8. —Charles’ passenger balloon 43

9. —La Flesselle 50

10. —The Great Balloon of Nassau 55

11. —Car of Nadar’s balloon 61

12. —Diagram of a modern spherical balloon with ripping panel 75

13. —Blanchard’s dirigible balloon, 1784 80

14. —Robert Brothers’ dirigible, 1784 82

15. —General Meusnier’s proposed dirigible, 1784 85

16. —Rufus Porter’s dirigible, 1820 87

17. —Jullien’s model dirigible, 1850 88

18. —Giffard’s steam dirigible, 1852 89

19. —Dupuy de Lome’s dirigible, 1872 92

20. —Renard’s dirigible, La France, 1884 94

21. —La Ville de Paris 121

22. —Le Petit Journal, Zodiac type 128

23. —Clément-Bayard II, 1910 133

24. —Morning Post dirigible, 1910 135

25. —Route of British military dirigibles from France to England, 1900 137

26. —Da Vinci’s helicopter 175

27. —Da Vinci’s parachute 176

28. —Veranzio’s parachute 178

29. —Lenormand’s parachute, 1784 179

30. —Paper traveling parachute 181

31. —Wenham’s aëroplane, 1866 185

32. —Penaud’s aëroplane toy, 1871 187

33. —Tatin’s aëroplane model, 1879 188

34. —Hargrave’s model screw monoplane, 1891 190

35. —Hargrave’s kite 191

36. —Launoy and Bienvenu’s helicopter, 1784 198

37. —Forlanini’s helicopter, 1878 200

38. —Le Bris’ aëroplane, 1855 204

39. —Mouillard’s aëroplane 208

40. —Blériot’s Toury-Artenay aëroplane circuit, 1908 269

41. —Map of the “Circuit de l’Est” 330

42. —Diagram of Curtiss hydro-aëroplane 333

43. —The Etrich monoplane of 1910 336

44. —Summer and winter average vertical temperature gradients 369

45. —General circulation of the atmosphere 378

46. —Normal Wind direction and velocity for January and February (Köppen) 381

47. —Normal Wind direction and velocity for July and August (Köppen) 383

48. —Trade and counter-trade winds 384

49. —Velocity diagram in horizontal section of a cyclone 398

50. —Funnel-like cloud sometimes observed in a tornado 409

51. —Vertical section of the St. Louis, Mo., tornado of May 27, 1896 411

52. —Horizontal section of St. Louis tornado of May 27, 1896 412

53. —Vertical section of short tornado 414

54. —Vertical section of a tall tornado 415

55. —Vertical section of a hail tornado 417

56. —Universal anemograph 428

57. —Records of wind variation in horizontal and vertical direction 429

58. —Records of Wind speed obtained by Langley 433