Part 4 — CHAPTER V.
Reading edition
CHAPTER V.
OF INCENDIARY FIRE-WORKS.
Under this head are included all artificial preparations, designed, as the name expresses, to communicate fire to buildings, shipping, &c. and for other purposes, connected with the operations of war.
At different periods, even from the remotest antiquity, incendiary works have been used. Of these preparations, we may enumerate the following: shells, howitzes, and grenades; fire-stone to put into shells and howitzes, intended to produce conflagration; incendiary matches, used in the same manner; carcasses and fire balls, to be thrown from a mortar, designed to light up the works in front of a besieged fortress, and to burn buildings; incendiary, or fire-balls, to be thrown from cannon or by hand, used in besieged fortresses to light up the enemy's works; pitched tourteaux and fascines, to illuminate the passage of rivers and defiles; powder bags, to throw upon troops mounting to the assault; powder barrels, to roll from the top of a breach, or from the head of a sap from the glacis; thundering barrel, employed for the same purpose; burning or illuminating barrel; petard, to break down the gates and barriers of small towns, and even thin walls; torches or flambeaux, to give light during night marches, and other purposes; rockets, fougettes, and murdering and the Congreve war rocket, for various uses; rocket carcass of Congreve, as an incendiary; rocket light ball, to illuminate the horizon near the enemy; murdering marrons; Roman incendiary candles, and incendiary stars; tarred and pitched ropes; fire rain; marine fuses, &c. to which we may add the ancient Greek fire, and red-hot balls.
In this chapter, under the different heads, we purpose to describe these, and other fire-works, used in war. We may remark, also, that animals are sometimes used as incendiary agents. Rats, for instance, have been employed in certain enterprizes, as for the purpose of setting fire to magazines of gunpowder. On these occasions, a lighted match is tied to the tail of the animal. The courier pigeon of the French, or carrier pigeon, is not used in this way; but only as a carrier of letters, to which it is trained and used in Persia and Turkey.
Sec. I. Of Fire Stone.
The fire stone (Roche à feu) is a compact, or solid composition. It is calculated to burn slowly, and when put into shells and howitzes, and thrown into cities, produces conflagration.
This stone is composed of sulphur, saltpetre, meal-powder, and sometimes grain-powder, &c. The sulphur is melted in a kettle, or glazed earthen vessel, over a clean charcoal fire; the saltpetre being pulverized, is then thrown into it, and the spirits of turpentine, if any is used. These articles are stirred with a spatula, and the fire must be so regulated, as to prevent the composition from boiling over, or taking fire. When these are well melted and mixed, they are taken off the fire, and permitted to cool a little; the gunpowder is then thrown in, and the composition poured upon a cold surface, where it consolidates. It is then broken into small lumps, to be made use of when required.
We may here remark, that, as the goodness of this composition depends upon the accuracy with which the mixture is made, too much care cannot be paid to this circumstance.
For the purpose of rendering this incendiary more inflammable, it is recommended to roll the pieces in meal-powder, before they become fully hard. If the same composition be mixed with suet and spirits of turpentine, it is used for the same purpose, but not in the same manner.
The invention of the fire stone is said to have originated from the fire-rain of Casimir Siemienowicz, an ingenious Polander, and Chevalier of Lithuania, &c.; and in fact, according to Ruggieri, the composition was taken from his treatise.
Incendiaries to be put into bombs or shells, are sometimes in rolls in the form of a sausage, which continue to burn after the shell has burst. They infallibly set fire to whatever combustible substance they touch. When thus made they are from .88 parts of an inch, to an inch in diameter, and from 3 to 4 inches long. Carcass composition is generally used. It is run into cylinders, which are pierced in the middle, and the hole is filled with the composition of bomb fuse. They are also furnished with cotton matches.
Composition of Fire Stone.
PARTS OF
Sulphur.Salt-MealPowderChar-
petre. Powder. in grain coal.
Composition frequently made use of,164430
Dododo285440
Do forparticularpurposes,9¼16⅞00⅞
Dododo1129001
Dodo(spirits of}
turpentine,12 oz.)and} 614
Fire stone may be considered the wild-fire; but this term is applicable to any composition, as the Greek fire, which, when inflamed, burns with rapidity, and communicates its fire to surrounding objects with quickness. In such cases, the combustion is so rapid, that buildings, &c. are immediately wrapt in flames, which seem almost to defy all human power to extinguish. Such was the nature of the Greek fire, of which we shall speak hereafter.
Sec. II. Of Incendiary Matches.
These are better for the purpose of putting into shells and howitzes, than fire-stone alone, which does not burn as well. Their preparation consists in boiling common slow match in a solution of 20 parts of saltpetre, in six parts of water; then drying and cutting it into pieces of two or three inches long, and immersing it into fire-stone, in a state of fusion. Before the match has become solid, let it be rolled in meal-powder, or in grain powder. Fifty pounds of fire-stone will be sufficient for 1500 matches.
Sec. III. Of Carcasses and Fire-Balls.
Carcasses and fire-balls are made of a composition of combustible substances, and are used to produce light, as well as to fire buildings. The difference between them is, that the carcass has bands or hoops of iron, that form its shell. These hoops are made at right angles with each other, in an oval form, and fastened together with a base of iron. The fire-ball is made of a sack of strong tow cloth, or of a bag of basket work, in an oval form, and covered with strong cord, to give it a body. Both, however, are well wrapped with cord, to make them more solid.
The Rev. J. P. Coste, in 1794, invented a carcass composition, which he submitted to the French national convention. It appears that its fire was very violent, which nothing could extinguish, and could be thrown 800 paces from a caliber of 24 in. and to a greater distance, if required. An account of this carcass is given in the Moniteur, No. 342.
Oblong carcasses were formerly in use. The round carcass is more applicable for mortars and howitzers. The 13-inch round carcass weighs about 212 lbs., 10-inch 96 lbs., 8-inch 48 lbs., and 51/2-inch 16 lbs. Carcasses are seldom or ever fired from guns or carronades, in the land or sea service. In bomb vessels, they are only fired from mortars. After the first invention of bombs, that of carcasses and grenades naturally followed. They are said to have been first used in 1594, and afterwards by the bishop of Munster, at the siege of Groll, in 1672, where the Duke of Luxemburg commanded.
The carcass for 12 and 10-inch mortars has six bands of iron; that for an 8-inch mortar, no more than four. These bands are of an oval shape, and fixed with nails, either clenched or rivetted to a bottom, of the shape of a segment of a sphere; then to a hoop, placed horizontally at one-third of their height; and at top, to another that closes the opening.
The sacks, that contain carcasses and fire-balls, are of a cylindrical form, and their diameter and height are equal, being the same as that of the carcass at one-third its height. They are sewed upon a circular bottom, like the woollen bags of gun-cartridges. When the ball is wound with thread, the folds will disappear. The sacks of fire balls are an inch less than the caliber of the mortar, and those of carcasses four inches more.
Table relative to the Dimensions of Carcasses, to fire from the Mortar.
CALIBERS OF12-inch.10-inch.8-inch.
Inch.Inch.Inch.
The spherical segment.
radius,55/124⅔1
height,21⅔1
Diam. of the circle,
at ⅓ of the height108½7
at the opening6541/6
Height
Of the iron mounting12108
Of the charged carcass, the ear not included161412
Of the enveloping sacks161412
Pounds.Pounds.Pounds.
The weight of the iron, for the mounting of the carcass, about20187
Composition of Carcasses and Light Balls.
Pitch.
White Pitch. (Turpentine.)
Mutton Tallow.
Rosin.
Sulphur.
Saltpetre.
Grain-powder.
Meal-powder.
Camphor.
Charcoal.
Carabé.
Moist composition. 24 12 4 00 0 36 0 ½ 00
Idem.180 100 0300 000
Dry composition.00 0121 202 000
Idem.00 0 12 2½ 1100 01½0
Another.126 200 0300 ½00
Ditto.00 1120 2200 201
Ditto.120 300 6300 000
Ditto.150 300 6300 000
Ditto.02½ 011 1½02 000
Ditto, particular, for setting fire to magazines, buildings, &c. 00 014 20 10 000
Ditto, same purpose.00 0416 32048 010*
Ditto. do.70 166 008 000
Antim.
Ditto. do.50 0825 5000 005
* Also, iron or steel filings, 2; and fir-tree sawdust boiled in a solution of saltpetre, 2.
We may remark, that the four first formulæ are given by Bigot, and are used in the French service. Therefore, although the others have been employed, we may consider the proportions in these, as best adopted for the carcass and light-ball composition. About 49 lbs. of composition and two lbs. of fine tow, are required for a carcass of 12 inches.
Luminous or light balls are sometimes made of the following compositions.
Composition for Luminous Balls.
1.Sulphur6 oz.
Antimony2 —
Saltpetre4 —
Rosin4 —
Charcoal4 —
2.Saltpetre2 oz.
Rosin2 —
Charcoal2 —
Antimony1 —
Sulphur1 —
Pitch1 —
In the formation of luminous, or light balls, whatever may be the composition, we may remark, that the only ingredients which appear to be essentially necessary are nitrate of potassa and inflammable substances. In some preparations, antimony is used, for the same reason as in the Bengal lights. Rosin, pitch, and charcoal are all inflammable; and sulphur, although it takes fire more instantaneously than these, enters into the composition of such fires more on account of its flame than any other.
As a general rule for the preparation of carcass composition, the following particulars must be attended to. After melting the pitch, turpentine, rosin, and sulphur, add the tallow and camphor, and then the nitre and charcoal, in powder. They are then to be stirred, and mixed intimately. Care must be taken to regulate the fire, and prevent the composition taking fire. After the kettle is withdrawn from the fire, the gunpowder is then gently added, and stirred with a stick or spatula. The kettle is then again put over the fire, and afterwards withdrawn. Tow is now added in small quantities at a time, stirring the mixture well that it may be thoroughly incorporated.
The preparation of the carcass, or fire-ball, is as follows; observing, that, if it is a carcass, the iron-frame must be first placed in the sack. Four cords are taken, each four lines in diameter, four feet long for the calibers of 10 and 12 inches, but only 3 feet for the calibers of 8 inches.
The middle of these four cords are laid one upon the other in the form of an eight-pointed star. Each end of the ropes is then fixed to a nail, and a bottom is formed, similar to basket-work, by interlacing a cord, two lines in diameter, three or four times round the central point. The small cord is then tied with a knot, and the bottom of the basket completed, by tying the four large cords together with four half knots. The bottom of the sack, containing the iron carcass, or of an empty sack, if a fire-ball is to be made, is placed upon the middle of this, and the filling performed in the following manner, namely: A sufficient quantity of the composition is taken from the kettle to fill the empty carcass, or sack, three or four inches high; a few loaded grenades, with the fuse down, or a howitz placed in the same way, are laid upon this first layer. The filling is continued to the top, putting the composition and grenades, in alternate layers. When it is done, the sack is tied with twine. In order to tie up the fire-ball in its cord net, the cords are raised from their nails, over the sack, and tied in such a way as to suspend it about the height of a man's head, and to permit it to be easily turned round. An artificer fixes the end of a small cord to one of the larger ones, at the distance of 11/2 inches from the bottom; he makes a half knot upon this, and carries the small cord round to the others, to which he ties it in the same way, forming a spiral round the ball. The large cords are kept regularly stretched in such a way, that each turn of the spiral may be 11/2 inches from that beneath it. When the spiral has reached the top of the ball, he unites the small cord, called the traverse, with the ends of the four others, called uprights. He divides the latter into two parcels, and forms a loop of them, through which a lever may be passed for the convenience of carrying it. At two or three inches from the upper end, and upon two sides, diametrically opposite to each other, two pins of hard dry wood, well greased, are driven in. These pins are 6 inches in length, one in diameter at the head, and half an inch at the point. They must be inclined in such a way, as to meet in the axis of the fire ball, at about half its height.
The carcass or fire-ball, when finished, is dipped into the following composition:
Composition of Pitch for Fire-Balls.
Pitch,32 parts.
Turpentine,16 ——
Rosin, 8 ——
Linseed oil, 6 ——
Mutton Tallow, 1 ——
Grenades answer the purpose of dispersing the fire of the carcass in different places; and the shell will not burst, till the carcass has burnt for a sufficient length of time. Sometimes the ends of gun barrels, or pistols, loaded with ball, are put in.
Carcasses and fire-balls are primed before they are used, by drawing out the pins, and filling the holes with the composition for the fuses of shells; taking care to use for ramming, only wooden or copper rammers. Four cotton matches are placed in each hole, 6.4 inches long, in order to convey the fire.
Carcasses and fire-balls are discharged from mortars, in the same manner as a bomb. When the carcass is intended to give light to discover the enemy's works, then the small charges are to be put into the chamber of the mortar, and but little elevation given, for fear it should bury itself in the ground. If, on the contrary, the intention is to set fire to houses or magazines, a greater elevation is given to the mortars, in order that it may reach and destroy the buildings, upon which it is intended to fall.
The composition used by the Austrians at the siege of Valenciennes, which is called after it, has the same effect as carcass. It is composed of saltpetre 50 parts, sulphur 28, antimony 18, and rosin 6.
An English writer observes, that the best way of making light balls, is to take thick brown paper, and make a shell the size of the mortar, and fill it with a composition of equal parts of sulphur, pitch, rosin and meal-powder.
Before closing this article, we may add, that carcasses are sometimes made to weigh two hundred and thirty pounds, and those for the naval service differ from a shell only in the composition, and in the four holes, from which it burns when fired.
Sec. IV. Of Incendiary Balls, or Fire Balls, to be thrown from Cannon or by Hand.
Balls of this kind are employed chiefly in beseiged fortresses to light up the enemy's works. In order to burn ships, hollow balls filled with incendiary matter and red-hot shot are preferable.
Composition of Incendiary Balls.
Meal-powder.
Saltpetre.
Sulphur.
Rosin.
Tallow.
Alum.
Antimony.
Char-
coal
Ordinary composition, moistened with spirits and linseed oil, meal, 443½ ¾00 00
Another,8824 04210
Do.074 3000½
The first composition is reduced to a paste with good brandy or other spirits, in which gum arabic and camphor have been dissolved; and after leaving it a few hours to dry, moisten it with linseed oil, and make it into balls a little less than the calibers of the guns, from which they are to be fired or weighing about four pounds, if they are to be thrown by hand. They are tied up in a cloth and steeped in a bath of pitch in the same way as carcasses. They are usually covered a second time with cloth and dipped in the same way. If they are to be fired from guns, they are enveloped in a netting of wire, to prevent them from being broke by the action of the charge. These balls when fired are put down over a small charge without ramming. Two holes are made in them in the same way as in carcasses and fire balls and they are primed in the same manner.
In employing the second and other compositions, the materials must first be melted, such as rosin, tallow, and sulphur, and the powder, alum, and antimony, added; when the melted matter is removed from the fire. After they are all mixed, the mixture is then poured into wooden moulds of two pieces, that are greased on the inside; the ball is taken from the mould when cool, and wrapped up in cloth or in tow. It is dipped in melted pitch. When it is to be used, holes are made in it with a gimblet, and it is primed like the others.
We may remark here, that the Congreve incendiary rocket is armed with carcass composition, which produces all the effects of the usual carcass. The rocket carcass will be considered under the head of war-rocket.
Sec. V. Of Smoke Balls.
Smoke balls are composed of the same substances as carcasses and light balls, with this difference, that they contain five to one of pitch, rosin, and sawdust. This composition is put into shells made for the purpose, having four holes to let out the smoke. Smoke balls are thrown out of mortars, and continue to smoke from twenty-five to thirty minutes.
Sec. VI. Of Stink Balls.
Stink Balls are prepared with a composition of mealed powder, rosin, saltpetre, pitch, sulphur, rasped horses' and asses' hoofs, burnt in the hoof, assafœtida, seraphim-gum, stinking herbs, &c. made up into balls in the same manner as light-balls, according to the size of the mortar, out of which they are to be thrown.
Sec. VII. Of Poisoned Balls.
With respect to poisoned balls, we are informed, that, although they have not been used by European nations, the Africans and the Indians have always been very ingenious at poisoning several kinds of fire compositions. At the commencement of the French revolution, poisoned balls were exhibited to the people, pretended to have been fired by the Austrians, particularly at the seige of Lisle. They contained glass, small pieces of iron, &c. and were said to be mixed with a greasy composition, which was impregnated with poisonous matter. In 1792, they were deposited in the archives of Paris.
Poisoned balls, according to authors, are composed of meal powder four parts, pitch six, rosin three, sulphur five, assafœtida eight, extract of toads' poison twelve, other poisonous substances twelve, made into balls in the manner we have mentioned. See Poisoned Arrow.
Sec. VIII. Of Red-hot Balls.
It will be sufficient to observe, that red-hot shot, as an incendiary, are considered fully adequate to perform the effect which they are designed to produce. The balls are ignited in a coal fire on an iron grate, in a furnace constructed for the purpose; and, when thus heated, are thrown from guns, the space between the powder and ball being filled up with a piece of wood of the exact diameter of the gun, or with wet hay or grass, to prevent the ball from setting fire to the powder.
With respect to chain balls, composed of two balls linked together by a chain from twelve inches to four feet in length, and designed to destroy palisadoes, wooden bridges, and chevaux-de-frize of a fortification; stang-balls, or bar-shot, called by some, balls of two heads, made by uniting, by means of a bar, half shot; and anchor balls, filled with the same composition as light-balls, with some trifling variation in the ball itself, &c.—they are all used as destructive weapons, which belong more particularly to the service of artillery.
Sec. IX. Of Pitched Tourteaux and Fascines.
Tourteaux are employed to illuminate the passages of rivers and defiles. They are placed in portable lanterns or in fire-grates. They are used chiefly to light up the works of the beseiger, when he approaches the covert way, and to burn the gabions and fascines, with which he constructs his passage to the ditch. Tarred links are nothing more than old junk or matches, dipped into a composition of pitch, suet, linseed oil and turpentine; the junk being cut into lengths of about five feet, which is called a link. The Tourteaux goudronnés of the French are the same, and formed of old rope, which is untwisted, immersed in pitch or tar, and afterwards left to dry. The French make the Tourteaux goudronnés in the following manner: Take twelve pounds of tar or pitch, six pounds of tallow, and three pints of linseed oil; melt them together and dip twisted pieces of rope of any length into the boiling mixture. If they are required to burn slow, six pounds of rosin and two pounds of turpentine are added. Sometimes to the composition of pitch, tallow, and linseed oil, are added two parts of saltpetre, one part of sulphur, and half a part of antimony. Tourteaux, according to Bigot, are made in the following manner: Old cords or pieces of match are beaten with mallets to take out the dirt, and prepare them to receive the composition. They are untwisted a little for the same purpose. They are then cut into pieces about five feet in length, and each is intertwined to form a circle of five or six inches of external diameter, making a hole at the same time in the middle for the passage of the point of the lantern.
The rope, being thus prepared, is next boiled in the composition given below, for the space of ten or fifteen minutes, and then laid upon a wet plank. They are a second time dipped into the composition, and thrown into cold water, to give them again, by hand, the circular figure they may have lost. Flower of sulphur is now put over them, and they are dried in the shade.
Composition for Tourteaux.
Pitch,24 parts.
Turpentine,12——
Rosin,6——
Mutton tallow,4——
Linseed oil,1——
Venice turpentine,1——
Another, for Tarred Links and Fascines, according to the Strasbourg formula.
Pitch,18 parts.
Turpentine,9——
Suet, or tallow,4——
Linseed oil,1——
Spirits of turpentine,1——
When a great quantity of links are to be made, either for illumination or for lighting a city, the oil may be omitted. The links will cost less, and they will answer the purpose equally well.
Fascines are made of strips of wood, or dry twigs, or wine shoots, which are the best, of the length of fourteen or sixteen inches. They are tied in bundles of four or five inches in diameter, with a cord or iron wire, and then boiled in the composition for tourteaux, and thrown into water to cool. They are principally used to give light to the works of an enemy, and to set fire to the passage of the ditch.
Fascines are of different kinds. In fortification, they are a kind of fagot, made of small branches of trees or brush wood, tied in three, four, five, or six places, and are of various dimensions, according to the purposes intended. Those that are to be pitched over for burning lodgements, galleries, or any other work of the enemy, should be one and a half or two feet long.
Sec. X. Of Torches or Flambeaux.
We have already spoken of torches, but in connection with military pyrotechny, we may add, that they are used to give light during night marches, and for other purposes. They are made in the following manner.
Boil, in a mixture of equal parts of water and saltpetre, old cords or old match, well cleaned and untwisted. Take them out and dry them; then cut them in pieces of four and a half feet in length, and tie four of these pieces with twine to a cylindrical piece of wood, of the same length, and an inch in diameter; so that the whole together may be from two to two and a half inches thick. Dip this torch into a liquid made of equal parts of meal-powder and sulphur, mixed together with brandy, in which some gum has been dissolved. Fill the intervals of the pieces of cordage, with a paste, composed of three parts of sulphur, and one of quicklime. Dry the torch, and when dry, turn it gently round, and finish it by pouring on it the following composition.
Composition for Flambeaux.
Turpentine,32 parts.
Venice turpentine,4——
Beeswax,32——
Sulphur,12——
Camphor,6——
Another.
Pitch,6 parts.
Turpentine,6——
Venice turpentine,1——
Torches or flambeaux may also be made without the central piece of wood.
Torches ought to have the quality of burning, let the weather be what it may. The following method of making them is also recommended.
Take four large cotton matches, three or four feet long, boil them in saltpetre, and arrange them round a pine stick; after which cover them with priming powder and sulphur, made into a thin paste with brandy. When dry, cover the matches with the following composition; viz. 2 lbs. of yellow wax, as much white pitch, 12 oz. sulphur, 6 oz. camphor, and 4 oz. of turpentine: melt the whole together.
Sec. XI. Of Powder Bags.
Powder bags are little sacks, that contain four pounds of powder.
They are of great use in besieged places. They are cast by the hand, set fire wherever they fall, and very much intimidate troops making an assault. They are made with good coarse cloth. Their width and size are not determined. It is sufficient that they can be easily thrown. The sides only are sewed up. In charging them, we begin by tying one end with strong packthread. Then turn it inside out, so that the ligature may be within, and fill it with powder, ramming it down with a cartridge form, proportioned to the bag, until it is full. Then put in the fuse, the large end inwards, and tie the bag tight. Afterwards the outside is covered with tar, or pitch.
Sec. XII. Of the Powder Barrel.
A powder barrel is a common barrel, filled with powder, to roll from the top of a breach, or upon the head of a sap from the glacis. The barrel contains from 100 to 200 pounds of powder, and is covered with a cloth. A hole is made at each end, in which a fuse may be fixed, of such a size, that the fire may be communicated to the powder, at the moment when the barrel, rolled from the top of the breach, is met by the troops mounting to the assault.
English writers state the diameter of powder barrels at 16 inches, and 30 or 32 inches in length, and capable of holding 100 pounds of powder. The quantity of powder put into them is 90 lbs; into a half-barrel, 45 lbs; and into a quarter-barrel, used for rifle powder, only 221/2 lbs. This proportion leaves a space for the powder to separate when rolled, or otherwise it would always be in lumps, and liable thereby to damage.
Sec. XIII. Of the Burning or Illuminating Barrel.
This barrel differs from the thundering barrel, which we shall describe in the following section, only in having no grenades; and when it is placed upon a glacis, it lights up or discovers the works of the besieger. It has a fuse in only one of its ends.
When shavings are boiled in the composition for links and fascines, or of tourteaux, and arranged layer by layer, scattering, over each stratum, some priming-powder, the combustion must be rapid, when the barrel is set on fire.
Fire barrels, we may observe, are of different kinds. Some are mounted on wheels, filled with composition, and intermixed with loaded grenades, and their outsides full of sharp spikes. Some are placed under ground, and have the effect of small mines; and others, as the kind we have mentioned, are used to roll down a breach to prevent the entrance of the enemy. The following composition has been used for the same purpose.
Composition for Fire-Barrels.
Grained powder,30 lbs.
Pitch,12—–
Saltpetre,6—–
Tallow,3—–
Sec. XIV. Of the Thundering Barrel.
This is employed for the same purpose as the preceding, or to light up the works of the besieger at the foot of the glacis. It has the same dimensions with the other, but has no cover. It is filled with chips, (dipped into the composition of the tourteaux), which are arranged in layers, putting, between each layer, meal-powder, and grenades, furnished with their fuses, or with pieces of musket barrels. The first and last layers are made with tow, boiled in the carcass composition. The barrel being filled, it is then closed and primed in the same way as the powder barrel, with a bomb fuse at each end. Holes are made along the barrel to assist the combustion. Grenades are employed in particular to prevent the approach of persons to extinguish the flame.
The invention of bombs is said to be owing to Scotland, and to the siege of St. Andrews. In the Art of War (says the Anthologia Hibernica, vol. iii, p. 174) printed at Venice, we are shown the representation of a hogshead, coated with conical headed nails, in which there is enclosed a barrel of gunpowder, suspended in the centre by an iron tube, which communicates at both ends with the open air. This engine, we are told by the author, killed 558 persons by its explosion in the fosse.
Sec. XV. Of the Petard.
The petard is used to break down the gates and barriers of small towns, and even their walls, by hanging it against them, and setting fire to the fuse. Its invention is ascribed to the French Huguenots in 1579, who, by means of petards, took Cahors, in the same year. It was invented, as others inform us, by the celebrated Coehorn.
The petard is a hollow piece of iron, either cast or wrought, of the figure of a truncated cone, and usually eight inches high, and nine and a half inches diameter at the base, the metal being five-sixths of an inch thick at top, and half an inch at bottom. It is open at the large end; and the small end, which is rounded, is pierced with a hole, in which is placed a brass fuse, filled with composition, in lieu of which, however, an ordinary bomb-fuse, or a quick-match may be used. It is furnished with four trunnions, (one and a half inches by one), to receive the iron staples, that are attached to an oaken plank, eighteen inches square, and two and a half inches thick, and reinforced below by two iron bands, in the form of a cross, nailed and dove-tailed in. It has two iron handles to carry it by, and to hook it to a screw, fixed in the gate intended to be broken. It is filled with gunpowder.
When the petard is to be loaded, it is filled with powder to within three inches of the bottom. Some folds of cartridge paper are then put in, and a bed of tow well rammed. It is finished with a hot cement made of one part of rosin, and two parts of ground brick, or Spanish brown. A plate of iron four or five lines thick is set into this, that fits the inside of the petard at that part. It is furnished with three iron points, to be driven into the plank. A petard, ready for use, weighs eighty-five pounds, and contains nine pounds of powder.
Dimensions of the Petard.
Inches.
Exterior diameter of the opening.9½
Exterior height.8
At the height,5/6
Thickness of the metal,In the middle,¾
At the bottom,½
Trunnions,Length,1½
Height,1
Length,45/12
Fuses,Diam. under the screw,11/12
Diam. of the screw,1⅓
Plank,Length and width,18
Thickness,2½
According to Ruggeri, a petard is filled, after warming it, with three fingers of powder, which is moistened with brandy, and then compressed without crushing it. On this powder, a quick match is placed, which is also compressed; after which, it is filled with composition previously melted. The composition is as follows:
Composition for Petards.
Pitch4 parts.
Sulphur,3——
Saltpetre,1——
Antimony,1——
After introducing one-half of this mixture, when melted, we put in the iron plate, which rests on the composition, and then add the rest of it, which finishes the operation.
Sec. XVI. Of the Stink-Fire Lance.
This lance (Lance à feu puant of the French) is prepared in the same manner as stink-pots, and is principally used by miners. When a miner or sapper has so far penetrated towards the enemy, as to hear the voices of persons in any place contiguous to his own excavation, he first of all bores a hole with his probe, then fires off several pistols through the aperture, and lastly forces in a lance à feu puant. He takes care to close up the hole on his side, to prevent the smoke from returning towards himself. The explosion and fetid gas and vapour, which issue from the lance, and remain on the side of the enemy, infect the air so much, that it is impossible to approach the quarter for three or four days. Sometimes, indeed, they have had such instantaneous effect, that, in order to save their lives, miners, who would persevere, have been dragged out in an apparent state of suffocation.
The composition of ordinary fire-lance has been given. They are sometimes used to set fire to fuses.
The fire-pot is a vessel made of clay, with two handles, in which a grenade with powder is confined, and which is thrown against an enemy, after the match has been lighted; but a stink-pot is a vessel, filled with combustible and other matter, used in boarding ships, &c.
The suffocating pot is another contrivance, as its name expresses, to produce suffocation; and, as the materials consist only of sulphur and nitre, the gas which principally produces this effect is the sulphurous acid.
Composition for Suffocating Pots.
Sulphur,6 parts.
Nitre,5——
Connected with this subject, we may mention another composition, to produce smoke, which is used either in pots, or balls. Hence, the smoke-pot, and smoke-balls. The following is the composition.
Composition for Smoke-Balls.
Grained-powder,10 lbs.
Nitre,2—–
Pitch,4—–
Sea-coal,3—–
Tallow,1—–
The coal and pitch produce the smoke, and the gunpowder and nitre promote the combustion, and, with the tallow render the product of combustion more offensive.
Sec. XVII. Of the Combustible Substances used in, and the Manner of preparing, a Fire-Ship.
A fire-ship is a vessel, filled with combustible substances, and fitted with grappling irons, to hook, and set fire to the enemy's ships in battle, &c.
With respect to the preparation required, some knowledge may be had by considering the following particulars. From the bulk-head at the fore-castle, to a bulk-head to be raised behind the main chains, on each side, and across the ship at the bulk-heads, is fixed, close to the ship's sides, a double row of troughs, two feet distance from each other, with cross troughs quite round, at about two and a half feet distance, which are mortised into the others. The cross troughs lead to the sides of the ship, to the barrels, and to the port-holes, to give fire both to the barrels and to the chambers, to blow open the ports; and the side troughs serve to communicate the fire all along the ship, and the cross troughs.
The timbers, of which the troughs are made, are about five inches square; the depth of the trough, half their thickness; and they are supported by cross-pieces at every two or three yards, nailed to the timbers of the ship, and to the wood-work, which encloses the fore and mainmasts. The decks and troughs are all well payed with melted rosin. On each side of the ship, six small port-holes are cut, from fifteen to eighteen inches large, (the ports opening downwards), and are close caulked up.
Against each port is fixed an iron chamber, which, at the time of firing the ship, blows open the ports and lets out the fire. At the main and fore chains, on each side, a wooden funnel is fixed over a fire-barrel, and comes through a scuttle in the deck, up to the shrouds to set them on fire. Both funnels and scuttles must be stopped with plugs, and have sail-cloth or canvass nailed close over them to prevent any accident happening that way by fire to the combustibles below.
The port-holes, funnels, and scuttles, not only serve to give the fire a free passage to the outside and upper parts of the ship and her rigging, but also to allow the inward air (otherwise confined) to expand itself, and push through those holes at the time of the combustibles being on fire, and prevent the blowing up of the decks, which otherwise must happen from the sudden and violent rarefaction of the air.
In the bulkhead behind on each side, is cut a small hole, large enough to receive a trough of the same size as the others, from which, to each side of the ship, lies a leading trough, one end coming through a sally port, cut through the ship's side, and the other fixing into a communicating trough, that lies along the bulk head, from one side of the ship to the other; and being laid with quick-match, at the time of firing either of the leading troughs, it communicates the fire, in an instant, to the contrary side of the ship, and both sides burn together.
Having thus described this preparatory arrangement, we shall consider, in the next place, the combustibles made use of in fitting up a fire-ship.
Fire-barrel. The fire-barrels for this purpose are cylindrical, on account of that shape answering better both for filling them with reeds, and for stowing them between the troughs. Their inside diameters are about 21 inches, and their length 33. The bottom parts are first filled with double-dipt reeds, set on end, and the remainder with fire-barrel composition, made of the following substances.
Composition for fire-barrels, for fire-ships.
Grained Powder30 lbs.
Pitch12—–
Saltpetre6—–
Tallow3—–
There are 5 holes of three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and 3 inches deep, made with a drift of that size, in the top of the composition, while it is warm; one in the centre, and the other four at equal distances, round the sides of the barrel.
When the composition is cold and hard, the barrel is primed by well driving these holes, full of fuse composition, to within an inch of the top; then fixing in each hole a strand of quick-match twice doubled, and in the centre hole, two strands the whole length; all which must be well driven with meal-powder. Then lay the quick-match all within the barrel, and cover the top of it with a dipped curtain, fastened on with a hoop to slip over the head, and nailed on.
Bavins. Bavins are made of birch, heath, or other sort of brush wood, that is both tough and quickly fired. Their length is 21/2 to 3 feet. The bush ends are all laid one way, and the other ends, tied with two bands each. They are dipped, and sprinkled with sulphur, the same as reeds; with this difference, that the bush ends only are dipped, and should be a little closed together by the hand as soon as done, to keep them more compact, in order to produce a stronger fire, and to preserve the branches from breaking in shifting and handling them.
Composition for Bavins.
Rosin120 lbs.
Sulphur, coarse, or roll90—–
Pitch60—–
Tallow6—–
Meal-powder12—–
Iron Chambers. These are ten inches long, and 3.5 in diameter; breeched against a piece of wood, fixed across the holes. When loaded, they are almost filled with grained powder, with a wooden tompion well driven into their muzzles. They are primed with a small piece of quick-match, thrust through their vents into the powder, with a part of it hanging out; and, when the ship is fired, they blow open the ports, which either fall downwards, or are carried away, and accordingly give vent to the fire out of the sides of the ship.
Curtains. Curtains are made of barras, about three-quarters of a yard wide, and one yard in length. When they are dipped, two men, with each a fork, must run the prongs through the corner of the curtain at the same end. Then dip them into a large kettle of composition, (which is the same as the composition for bavins,) well melted; and, when well dipped and the curtain extended to its full breadth, whip it between two sticks of about 5.5 feet long, and 1.5 inches square, held close by two other men, to take off the superfluous composition hanging to it. Then immediately sprinkle sawdust on both sides, to prevent it from sticking, and the curtain is finished.
Reeds. They are made up in small bundles of about 12 inches in circumference, cut even at both ends, and tied with two bands each. The longest sort are 4 feet, and the shortest 2.5, the only lengths which are used. One part of them is single dipped, only at one end; the rest are double dipped, that is, at both ends. In dipping, they must be put about 7 or 8 inches deep into a copper kettle of melted composition, of the same kind as that for bavins; and, when they have drained a little over it, to carry off the superfluous composition, sprinkle them, over a tanned hide, with pulverized sulphur, at some distance from the copper. With respect to the stores, required for a fire ship of 150 tons, the following complement is given: viz.
No.
Fire barrels8
Iron chambers12
Priming composition barrels3½
Quick-match barrels1
Curtains dipped30
Long reeds, single dipped150
Short reeds{ double dipped75
{ single dipped75
Bavins, single dipped209
The quantity of composition, for preparing the stores of a fire ship is as follows:
For 8 barrels; grained powder 960 pounds, pitch 480 pounds, tallow 80 pounds.
For 3 barrels of priming composition, saltpetre 175 lbs. sulphur 140 lbs. grained powder 350 lbs. rosin 21 lbs. oil-pots 11.
For curtains, bavins, and reeds, and sulphur to salt them, as artificers call it; sulphur 240 lbs. pitch 350 lbs. rosin 175 lbs. tallow 50 lbs. tar 25 lbs.
Total weight of the composition 3017 pounds, equal to 26 cwt. 3 qr. 21 lbs.
The composition, required for the rods and barrels, is one-fifth of the whole of the last article, which is equal to 160 lbs. making in the whole, 3177 lbs. or 28 cwt. 1 qr. 13 lbs.
Adye (Bombardier and Pocket Gunner) has given two general formulæ for the composition, used in fire-ships, which we will here insert.
Composition for dipping reeds, bavins, and curtains.
Rosin,120 lbs
Coarse sulphur,90—
Pitch,60—
Tallow,6or 8
Mealed powder,12—
Composition for priming.
Pulverized saltpetre,22lbs.8 oz.
Rosin,2—11—
Sulphur,18—
Meal-powder,45—
Linseed oil,1 pint.
The composition put in cases, to set fire to fascine batteries, is sometimes used in fire-ships, viz.
Composition for setting fire to Fascine Batteries.
Meal-powder,1 lb. 4 oz.
Saltpetre,6 —
Sulphur,1 —8 oz.
There is also another composition, which might be used advantageously for the same purpose, and which is employed for hoops, fire-arrows, and lances, namely:
Composition for Hoops, Fire-Arrows, &c.
Meal-powder,1 lb.
Saltpetre,3 —
Sulphur,8 oz.
Linseed oil,8 —
The composition of kitt, used for the last covering of carcasses, may also be employed. It must be applied when very thin and hot.
Composition of Kitt.
Rosin,9 lbs.
Bees' wax,6 —
Pitch,6 —
Tallow,1 —
Sec. XVIII. On Infernal Machines.
The Machines Infernales of the French, which have excited so much attention in Europe, we deem of sufficient importance to describe.
This invention is by no means new, although it has been attributed to the French. It appears that Fredric Jambelli, an Italian engineer, was the first that used them, when Alexander, of Parma, besieged Antwerp. The Prince of Orange likewise had recourse to the destructive effects of an infernal machine, in order to bombard Havre-de-Grace, and to set it on fire. The Dutch and English, in conjunction, attempted to destroy St. Malo by the same means. The first instance, however, upon record, in which the French made use of this machine, was when Louis XIV ordered a vessel, carrying an enormous shell, full of every kind of combustible matter, to be despatched to Algiers, for the purpose of demolishing its harbour. This, it is supposed, suggested the use of fire-ships, which have frequently been used against maritime places.
The author of the Œuvres Militaires, tom. xxii, p. 222, speaking of the infernal machine, observes, that, if he were to be in a situation, which required the use of so dreadful an explosion, especially to destroy a bridge, he would prefer having the machine made simply with different strong pieces of wood, joined together, so as to be in the shape of an egg, or of a cone reversed.
The whole must then be made compact with cords twisted round. This method, in his opinion, is not only the best, but can be executed in the most easy and expeditious manner. He further adds, that, in order to burn or blow up wooden bridges, and even to destroy such as are constructed upon arches, several sorts of barges or boats might be used, which should be filled with fire-works, bombs, petards, &c. It would, likewise, be easy to construct these machines upon floating rafters, carrying several thousand pounds weight of gunpowder, which might be confined within strong pieces of wood, put together in the manner already described.
These machines should be piled one above another, and long iron bars must be thrown across the floats, or be fixed like masts; so that, when the whole of the combustible material is beneath the centre of the bridge, the rafters may be stopped. Great care must be taken to dispose the matches in such a manner, that no fire may be communicated to the gunpowder before the machine reaches the exact spot, which is to be destroyed.
In 1804, an infernal machine was used at Boulogne, which is described as follows:
This machine appears to be as simple in its construction, as it is calculated to be effectual in its operations. It is composed of 2 stout planks, 17 feet long, which form its sides, and are distant from each other about 7 feet.
These planks are connected by transverse timbers, screwed to the planks; so as to keep the whole firm and compact, and to prevent the danger of their being separated at sea. Of these transverse timbers, two are at the fore extremity, and three behind. This may be called, the frame or hull of the machine; the remainder of the work, being either for the stowage of the combustible matter, or for the accommodation of the seamen, who row the machine. Along the transverse timbers, at both extremities, are laid parallel to the sides, five longitudinal bars of nearly the same strength as the transverse timbers, which form a kind of grate, on which the coffers, containing the combustible matter, are placed. The grate behind is double the size of the one before, on the principle of giving facility to the motion of the whole, by making the machine lighter at the head. In the centre, between the planks forming the sides, from the inner extremity of the grate behind, to the outer extremity of the grate before, there is fixed a plank, somewhat broader than the side planks, which is well secured to them by three stout transverse timbers, which pass under the centre plank, to prevent its giving way to pressure.
In this plank, two triangular apertures are cut for men who row, to dispose of the lower extremities, whilst they ply the machine. Their seats, however, are so contrived, that each man's pressure is directly over that part of the plank, which is supported by the transverse timbers. The seats lie nearer to the head than to the hind part of the machine; perhaps to be some counterpoise for the greater weight of the combustible matter behind. Near each seat are fastened by rings to the sides, two oars, one on each side, and each man plies a pair. When the machine is worked to its destination, the men set the combustibles in a train for explosion, and abandon their posts.
The whole is so regulated, as to weight of materials, that the machine floats, or, more probably, moves under the surface of the water; so that little more than the heads of the men are seen. This secures the men and the machine from the fire of the enemy; and as the oars must be constantly plied under water, there is less danger of their being discovered by their noise, as they approach.
Infernal machines have also been made, to be used on land. Such is the machine we are told, which was intended for the destruction of Bonaparte. They may be made to explode at a given time, by clock-work, or by a match, calculated to burn a certain time!
Sec. XIX. Of the Catamarin.
The catamarin, properly so called, is a floating raft, originally used in China, and among the Portuguese as a fishing-boat. The Indian catamarin consists of two logs of wood, upon which the natives float, and go through the heaviest surf.
The military or naval catamarin is a different thing. It is properly a case, filled with combustibles, and contrived to remain so low in the water as to be almost imperceptible. This, being towed to the building, or ship, against which the attack is to be directed, is left to explode, by means of machinery within itself, when its operation is sometimes very destructive.
English writers acknowledge, that the catamarin, submitted by the late Mr. Pitt to the English government, and which cost in its construction a considerable sum, was originally invented by our countryman, the late Mr. Fulton, of whose invention we will speak hereafter.
Some observations on a boat, named, by the French, Chelingues, and the Indian catamarin, may be seen in the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, article Bateau.
Several diving machines have been invented in France and elsewhere. M. Castera (Archives des Découvertes, iii, p. 185) describes a plunging boat, which resembles in figure a cone. It is furnished with a reservoir, calculated to hold water, and may be filled or emptied by means of pumps. By means of glasses and copper handles, the navigator is enabled to see and to take hold of objects. It is also furnished with tubes for the transmission of the air necessary for respiration, that communicate from the interior of the vessel with the atmosphere; and a double bellows, designed as well for receiving, as expelling air. Besides oars or paddles, necessary to move it under water, there is a contrivance for detaching the boat from the reservoir, either wholly or in part, according to circumstances.
M. Castera, in a memoir on sub-marine navigation, has noticed several applications of the plunging boat, which may be seen in the Bulletin de la Société d'Encouragement, No. 71. In No. 61, of the same work, is the first notice of Castera's invention, an extract of which may be seen in the Archives des Découvertes, ii. p. 121. A description of Lutgendorf's boat may be seen in the Magazin der Erfindungen, No. 46.
Sec. XX. Of the American Turtle.
It is well known that the diving-bell, and similar contrivances, have been used for naval purposes, in connection with naval warfare.
Divers, or those who made it a business, by long habit and experience, to remain under water, and go to a great depth, were often employed in war to destroy the works and ships of the enemy. When Alexander was besieging Tyre, divers swam off from the city, under water, to a great distance, and, with long hooks, tore to pieces the mole, with which the besiegers were endeavouring to block up the harbour. The invention of the diving-bell, the campana urinatoria of some, is generally assigned to the sixteenth century; but it is evident, from the writings of Aristotle and others, that, in his time, divers used a kind of kettle to enable them to continue longer under water.
At the pearl fisheries, in the Bay of Condalzchy, in Ceylon, divers usually remain under water two minutes. There are some who can stay five minutes; and a diver from Anjano, engaged in this fishery in 1797, was able to remain six minutes under water. But their efforts are so great, that, when they come up, blood frequently issues from their mouths, ears, and nostrils. Notwithstanding this, they frequently dive from forty to fifty times a day, and bring up in a bag-net a hundred oysters each time.
It may be proper to observe, that the subject of sub-marine navigation was largely descanted upon by Mersennus, (Tractatus de Magnetis Proprietatibus), and by Bishop Wilkins (Mathematical Magic, 1648), who, by the way, is rather visionary. The conveniences and advantages he enumerates, are: 1. 'Privacy, as a man may thus go to any part of the world invisibly, without being discovered or prevented. 2. Safety, from the uncertainty of tides and tempests, &c. 3. It may be used to blow up, or undermine a navy: 4. Or to relieve a blockaded place, &c. But, with regard to the use of sub-marine vessels in war, Mr. David Bushnel, of Saybrook, Connecticut, appears to be entitled to the credit of the invention. His account of it may be seen in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. The intended object of this vessel was to destroy shipping, by the explosion of a magazine of gunpowder.
In Silliman's Journal of Science and Arts, vol. II, p. 94, is a communication by Mr. Griswold, on the subject of Bushnel's machine, with an account of the first attempt with it, in August, 1776, by Ezra Lee, a sergeant in the American army, to destroy some of the British ships then lying at New York. Mr. Griswold remarks, that, considering the invention of Mr. Bushnel as the first of its kind, it will be pronounced to be remarkably complete throughout in its construction, and that such an invention furnishes evidence of those resources and creative powers, which must rank him as a mechanical genius of the first order.
He has given a description of it; but the outline which we give is taken from Nicholson's Journal, quarto, iv, p. 229.
It is a decked boat, to go underwater: and several persons have gone under water many leagues. The difficulty is, to provide the persons in the boat with fresh air for respiration; and this is contrived, by having a reservoir of air, of suitable dimensions to the size of the boat, and the number of persons in it. By means of a condensing pump, the air, in this reservoir, is condensed about 400 times; and by a spring, the air is let out at intervals, as circumstances require, the carbonic acid produced by respiration being absorbed by quicklime. Within this boat are flaps, like those of a rundle, to move the boat, two rudders, one vertical, the other horizontal, and a pump to empty the hold, or air reservoir. The person within, can, at pleasure, come to the top of the water. The different experiments made by Mr. Bushnel may be seen in the Transactions referred to, or in Nicholson's Journal, quarto, iv, 229.
During the late war, Mr. Fulton, Mr. Mix, and some others, made various experiments with submarine machines; and during the revolution, the incendiary kegs, well known by the name of the "battle of the kegs," excited no small attention, and, had it not been for some unforeseen circumstance, they would, in all probability, have produced the effect for which they were intended.
Of Bushnel's vessel, we may observe, that, in the fore part of the brim of the crown, as it is called, was a socket, and an iron tube passing through the socket. The tube stood upright, and could slide up and down in the socket, six inches. At the top of the tube was a wood screw, fixed by means of a rod, which passed through the tube, and screwed the wood screw fast upon the top of the tube. By pushing the wood screw up against the bottom of a ship, and turning it at the same time, it would enter the planks. When the wood screw was firmly fixed, it could be cast off by unscrewing the rod, which fixed it upon the top of the tube.
Behind the submarine vessel, was a place, above the rudder, for carrying a large powder magazine. This was made of two pieces of oak timber, sufficiently large, when hollowed out, to contain 150 lbs. of powder, (130 lbs. according to Griswold,) with the apparatus used in firing it, and was secured in its place by a screw, turned by the operator. A strong piece of rope extended from the magazine to the wood screw above mentioned, and was fastened to both. When the wood screw was fixed, and to be cast off from its tube, the magazine was to be cast off likewise by unscrewing it, leaving it hanging to the wood screw; it was lighter than the water, that it might rise up against the object, and apply itself when fastened.
Mr. Griswold remarks, that the most difficult point of all to be gained, was to fasten this magazine to the bottom of a ship.
Within the magazine, was a machine, constructed to run any proposed length of time under twelve hours. When it had run out its time, it unpinioned a strong lock resembling a gun-lock, which gave fire to the powder. This apparatus was so pinioned, that it could not possibly move, till, by casting off the magazine from the vessel, it was set in motion.
This skilful operator could swim so low on the surface of the water, as to approach very near a ship in the night without fear of discovery, and might, if he chose, approach the stem or stern above water, with very little danger. He could sink very quickly, keep at any depth he pleased, and row a great distance in any direction he desired, without coming to the surface; and, when he rose to the surface, he could soon obtain a fresh supply of air; when, if necessary, he might descend again and pursue his course. The projector found some time and attention to be requisite for the gradual instruction of this operator, and, after various attempts, he found one, on whom he thought he could depend. He sent this man from New York to a 50 gun ship, lying not far from Governor's island. He went under the ship, and attempted to fix the wood screw in her bottom, but struck, as he supposed, a bar of iron, which passes from the rudder's hinge, and is spiked under the ship's quarter. Had he removed a few inches, which he might have done without rowing, the projector has no doubt but he might have found wood, where he might have fixed the screw; or if the ship were sheathed with copper, he might easily have pierced it. But, not being well skilled in the management of the vessel, in attempting to row to another place, he lost the ship. After seeking her in vain some time, he rowed to some distance, and rose to the surface of the water, but found day light had advanced so far, that he durst not renew the attempt. He says, he could easily have fastened the magazine under the stern of the ship above the water, as he rowed up to the stern, and touched it before he descended. Had he fixed it there, the explosion of 150 lbs of gunpowder (the quantity contained in the magazine) must have been fatal to the ship. In his return from the ship to New York, he passed near Governor's island, and thought he was discovered by the enemy on the island. Being in haste to avoid the danger he feared, he cast off the magazine, as he imagined it retarded him in the swell, which was very considerable. After the magazine had been cast off an hour, the time the internal apparatus was set to run, it blew up with great violence.
Mr. Griswold gives an account of an attempt to destroy a ship of war; and having received his information from Mr. Lee, one of the adventurers, we have thought proper to introduce it from that source.
"It was in the month of August, 1776, when Admiral Howe lay with a formidable British fleet in New York bay, a little above the narrows, and a numerous British force upon Staten Island, commanded by General Howe, threatened annihilation to the troops under Washington, that Mr. Bushnel requested General Parsons, of the American army, to furnish him with two or three men to learn the navigation of his new machine, with the view of destroying some of the enemy's shipping.
"General Parsons immediately sent for Lee, then a sergeant, and two others, who had offered their services to go on board a fire ship; and on Bushnel's request being made known to them, they enlisted themselves under him for this novel piece of service. The party went up into Long Island sound with the machine, and made various experiments with it in the different harbours along shore; and after having become pretty thoroughly acquainted with the mode of navigating it, they returned through the sound; but, during their absence, the enemy had got possession of Long Island and Governor's Island. They, therefore, had the machine conveyed by land across from New Rochelle to the Hudson river, and afterwards arrived with it at New York.
"The British fleet now lay to the north of Staten Island, with a large number of transports, and were the objects against which this new mode of warfare was destined to act. The first serene night was fixed upon for the execution of this perilous enterprize, and sergeant Lee was to be the engineer. After a lapse of a few days, a favourable night arrived, and, at 11 o'clock, a party embarked in two or three whale boats, with Bushnel's machine in tow. They rowed down as near the fleet as they dared, when sergeant Lee entered the machine, was cast off, and the boats returned.
"Lee now found the ebb tide rather too strong, and before he was aware, had drifted him down past the men of war. He, however, immediately got the machine about, and by hard labour at the crank for the space of five glasses by the ship's bells, two and a half hours, he arrived under the stern of one of the ships at about slack water. Day had now dawned, and by the light of the moon he could see the people on board, and hear their conversation. This was the moment for diving: he accordingly closed up over head, let in water, and descended under the ship's bottom. He now applied the screw, and did all in his power to make it enter; but owing probably in part to the ship's copper, and the want of an adequate pressure, to enable the screw to get a hold on the bottom, his attempts all failed. At each essay, the machine rebounded from the ship's bottom, not having sufficient power to resist the impulse thus given to it. He next paddled along to a different part of her bottom, but, in this manœuvre, he made a deviation, and instantly rose to the water's surface on the east side of the ship, exposed to the increasing light of the morning, and in imminent hazard of being discovered. He immediately made another descent, with a view of making one more trial; but the fast approach of day, which would expose him to the enemy's boats, and render his escape difficult, if not impossible, deterred him; and he concluded the best generalship would be, to commence an immediate retreat. He now had before him a distance of more than four miles to traverse, but the tide was favourable. At Governor's island, great danger awaited him; for his compass having got out of order, he was under the necessity of looking out from the top of the machine very frequently, to ascertain its course, and at first made a very irregular zigzag track. The soldiers at Governor's island espied the machine, and curiosity drew several hundreds upon the parapet to watch its motions. At last a party came down to the beach, shoved off a barge, and rowed towards it. At that moment, sergeant Lee thought he saw his certain destruction, and as the last act of defence, let go the magazine, expecting they would seize that likewise, and thus all would be blown to atoms together. Providence, however, otherwise directed it: the enemy, after approaching within 50 or 60 yards of the machine, and seeing the magazine detached, began to suspect a yankee trick, took alarm, and returned to the island. Approaching the city, he soon made a signal; the boats came to him, and brought him safe and sound to the shore. The magazine, in the mean time, had drifted past Governor's island into the East river, where it exploded with tremendous violence, throwing large columns of water, and pieces of wood that composed it, high into the air. General Putnam, with many other officers, stood on the shore, spectators of this explosion.
"In a few days, the American army evacuated New York, and the machine was taken up the North river. Another attempt was afterwards made by Lee, upon a frigate that lay opposite Bloomingsdale. His object now was to fasten the magazine to the stern of the ship, close at the water's edge. But while attempting this, the watch discovered him, raised an alarm, and compelled him to abandon his enterprize. He then endeavoured to get under the frigate's bottom; but in this he failed, having descended too deep. This terminated his experiments."
With regard to diving bells, several machines, for the purpose of descending under water, &c. have been invented. Some experiments have been made by the French with similar contrivances, without any adequate result; and the difficulty of carrying them into execution, in real practice, will prevent their introduction.
Dr. Caustic, (Terrible Tractoration, p. 65), in a note, in reference to Bushnel's invention, observes, that if you consult the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, "you will see what Mr. D. Bushnel, of Connecticut, has done, and had like to have done, by virtue of submarine explosions. You will find, that several English ships have been put in jeopardy, and one schooner actually blown up and demolished by Mr. Bushnel's submarine explosions."[33]
Sec. XXI. Of the Torpedo.
The late Mr. Fulton applied himself to the improvement of the Turtle during the late war, and brought it to such perfection, that if it came in contact with a ship's bottom, it would inevitably blow up the vessel. From the account we have given of the turtle, we may readily imagine the construction of the torpedo. These were of several kinds; some (or rather the magazine attached to them,) were designed to be screwed under the bottom, and others to explode by coming in contact with the vessel, or any resisting body. The time of explosion was so determined, by clock-work machinery, in the manner of Bushnel's contrivance that it would invariably explode at the minute or second required.
Mr. Fulton wrote a number of essays on this torpedo, and other contrivances for annoying the enemy, such as the harpoon, &c. The torpedo, at which the British ships, stationed on our coast, were so much alarmed, is in fact a powerful weapon of destruction. It is to be observed, that the magazine, accompanying the bell, in some instances, was detached; so that the latter was removed out of danger, when the former was fixed to the ship's bottom. In order to prevent the torpedo from floating against the sides of a vessel, the precaution of having netting spread at some considerable distance round the vessel, and of keeping up a constant guard of boats, which were rowed round the ship both day and night, was used. Not having the writings of Mr. Fulton before us, we can give no precise description of his improvements. They are described to be an apparatus, of which the principal piece is a copper box, and prepared with an interior spring, which sets fire to the powder; at the same time that the whole is enclosed in a covering of cork, or some other light wood, to make the torpedo float under the surface of the water.
It will be sufficient to remark, that they have produced the effect of causing a constant, and, in our opinion, painful anxiety to the British. Of this we have abundant proof. We may add, however, the result of some of the experiments, by which it will appear, that they are eminently calculated, like the infernal machine, to produce death and destruction.
In consequence of some essays, published by Mr. Fulton, on the practicability of destroying ships by torpedoes, several persons turned their attention to this subject; among whom was a Mr. Mix of the navy. Mr. Mix's intention was to destroy the ship of war Plantagenet, of 74 guns, lying in Lynnhaven bay. Having made a torpedo, Mr. Mix, accompanied by two gentlemen, one of whom was a midshipman, proceeded in a boat, on the night of the 24th of July, 1813, and, having reached within 100 yards of the ship, dropped the torpedo. It was swept along by the side, but exploded a few seconds before it would have come in contact with the vessel. It produced, however, great consternation and confusion on board the vessel, and induced several of the crew to take to their boats. The ship was greatly agitated, and some damage done by the violent motion of the water. The noise, occasioned by the explosion, was loud and tremendous; and the appearance of the water, thrown up in a column of thirty or forty feet high, awfully sublime. It has not been ascertained, that any lives were lost.
The case of a Mr. Penny, of Easthampton, Long Island, is connected with the subject of torpedoes. He was carried on board the Ramilies, and put in irons; because his name had been entered on the books of one of the frigates, as having been "employed in a boat, contrived for the purpose, under the command of Thomas Welling, prepared with a torpedo, to destroy this (Capt. Hardy's) ship."
The affair of Stonington, also, shows, that the British were determined to punish the inhabitants for having, as captain Hardy expresses it, prepared torpedoes; and the captain stated, in his reply to the deputation from the town, that the bombardment should cease, in case the inhabitants would engage that no torpedoes should be fitted out by them. No torpedoes, however, were fitted out at Stonington.[34]
Mr. Fulton made a number of experiments with the torpedo, in the harbour of New York; and one vessel was completely cut in two. These experiments were very satisfactory to all who witnessed them.
The greatest difficulty he experienced was in giving them a proper direction, so as to hit the vessel intended to be destroyed. This he acknowledged to a friend, professor Eaton, of Troy, who informed us of the fact. He entertained no doubt whatever of the effect of the torpedo, when once brought in contact with a vessel.
At Havre, in France, Mr. Fulton constructed a sub-marine boat, sufficient to contain several men, and air for eight hours, and strong enough to bear submersion to the depth of one hundred feet, if necessary. In this boat, he remained an hour under water, made half a league of way in that time, with his boat horizontally situated, and at various depths, where he found that the compass traversed exactly, as on the surface. To the boat he attached a machine, by means of which he blew up a lighter in Brest Harbour.
While in France, in the time of the Republic, Mr. F. directed his attention to this subject. His Bateau-poisson, described in the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, vol. i, p. 265, is of the same character. A number of experiments performed with it are given.
Sec. XXII. Of the Marine Incendiary Kegs, &c.
We purpose to notice, under this head, two contrivances, which have been used, the one in the revolution, and the other, during the late war with Great Britain.
The piece of poetry, called the Battle of the Kegs, written by the late Francis Hopkinson, Esq. of Philadelphia, narrating the incendiary kegs, is founded on this contrivance.
For the purpose of destroying the shipping at Philadelphia, which was then in possession of the British, some forty or more kegs were fitted up at Burlington, N. J. or in its neighbourhood, containing a quantity of gunpowder. These kegs were connected in such a manner, that, while they formed one float, when one exploded, the whole would go off. This arrangement was also made with another, if our information is correct, which consisted in a trigger connected with a gun-lock, (one or more kegs having the same); so that, when the triggers went off, by the casks coming against any thing, in floating down the tide, the whole would explode at the same time. There is one of the original kegs in the magazine of Fort Mifflin. We apprehend, however, that the contrivance was more like that of clock-work, set to a given time, like the torpedo of Fulton; but of this we have no certain account. These kegs were towed down the river, within a mile or two of the city, and were seen about sunrise opposite to it. They did no execution; but, if they had been taken to a given spot, instead of being left to the direction of the running current, and then properly adjusted, no doubt the effect would have been as the contriver calculated. It excited, however, no small sensation at the time.
Of the other contrivance, we have the following account: A Mr. Scudder (History of the late War, &c. p. 187) formed a design of destroying the British ship Ramilies, of 74 guns, off New London. For this purpose, 10 kegs of powder were put into a strong cask, with a quantity of sulphur mixed into it. At the head of the cask were, fixed two gun-locks, with cords fastened to the triggers, and to the under side of the barrels in the hatchway; so that it was impossible to hoist the barrels, without springing the locks each side of the powder. On the top were placed a quantity of turpentine and spirits of turpentine, which in all probability were sufficient to destroy any vessel that ever floated. These kegs were put on board the smack Eagle, which sailed from New York on the 15th of June, for New London; but which the crew abandoned, on being pursued by the boats of the enemy. It was expected, that the vessel would be brought alongside the Ramilies, and, by exploding, destroy that ship. The wind dying away, and the tide being against them, she could not, very fortunately for the enemy, be brought alongside. When the Eagle exploded, there were four boats alongside, and a great many men on board of her. After the explosion, there was not a vestige of the boats to be seen. A body of fire rose to a vast height, and then burst like a rocket. Every man, near or about her, was probably lost, as the boats sent from the Ramilies were seen to return without picking up anything.
In relation to similar enterprizes, what could have been a more daring and hazardous enterprize, than that of lieutenants Wadsworth, Summers, &c. who, by a previous agreement, determined, if they were likely to be captured by the Turks, to blow themselves up in the fire-ship, which they had prepared to destroy the enemy's shipping, in the harbour of Tripoli? Their fate is too well known, lamentable as it is!
The marquis of Worcester, in his Century of Inventions, inventions nine and ten, speaks of certain contrivances for the destruction of vessels, which seem to have been of the kind mentioned: viz. "An engine, portable in one's pocket, which may be carried and fastened on the inside of the greatest ship, tanquam aliud agens; and, at an appointed minute, though a week after, either of a day or night, it shall irrecoverably sink that ship;" and "a way from a mile off, to drive and fasten a like engine to any ship, so as it may punctually work the same effect, either for time or execution."
Sec. XXIII. Of Sea Lights.
The fanaux de mer, or sea lights, are so called, from the particular application of this fire.
It is sometimes required at sea to throw light upon the water, and around the vessel, in order to perceive the approach of an enemy. This is effected by the composition for sea lights.
A tube must be formed of not less than three inches in diameter, and eleven inches in length. A shield is then adapted, of four times the exterior diameter of the tube or case, which shield is to be made of wood, and attached at about the distance of one-fourth of the length of the tube, and near the end of the orifice.
The case or tube is then charged with the following composition:
Composition for Sea Lights.
Saltpetre,16 parts.
Sulphur,8——
Meal-powder,3——
Antimony,3——
The tube, which may be made of iron, pasteboard, or wood, by boring it out, after being charged, is primed in the usual manner, inserting in the end, at the same time, a piece of quick-match. When dried, it is wrapped in paper for better preservation.
Sec. XXIV. Of Signal and War-Rockets.
Rockets, we have said, are cylindrical cases, formed generally of pasteboard, and filled with a peculiar composition, made of meal-powder, saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal; or without powder, and sometimes with the addition of pulverized cast iron. In some, as the Congreve rocket, iron cases are substituted for those of paper. The outer diameter is usually from one and a half to two inches, the length of the charge five diameters, and the interior diameter two-thirds as much as the exterior. The tools necessary are, a rod or former of wood, to mould the case upon; an artificer's tool to roll the paper close; a conical spit or piercer, by means of which the rocket when loaded has a hollow through the middle, which piercer should be four and two-thirds times as long as the outer diameter of the rocket, one-third of this diameter at the base, and one-sixth at the small end; three rods for loading, having a conical aperture to receive the piercer, and one massive; and a ladle or measure, whose diameter is equal to that of the inside of the rocket, and its length three times as much. The construction of the cartouch case, or paper cylinder, consists in using pasteboard of three or more thicknesses, which is rolled on the former, until the case becomes sufficiently thick. The choaking of the cylinder is performed by means of a cord, of three lines in diameter, one end of which is firmly fixed into a wall, and the other tied to a stick, against which the artificer who bestrides the cord rests. The rocket is loaded or charged, by introducing at a time, a ladle full of composition, first fixing the case over the piercer, and using the appropriate rammer and mallet, in the manner stated, &c.[35]
Signal rockets are sometimes trimmed with serpents, stars, and petards. The serpents are made of cases in the manner already mentioned; viz. by rolling playing cards in the direction of their length, upon a former, three lines in diameter, and covered with three coats of paper, the last of which is pasted. The cases are choaked at one end, and in the niche is placed a strand of tow, and a priming of meal-powder, moistened with brandy. They are loaded, by means of a rod, three-fourths full of the composition, and again choaked at half their height. The remainder is filled up with powder, to make a report. If a serpent with stars is to be made, only half the case is filled with the serpent-composition, and the rest with that for stars. Serpents are placed upright in the pot, the priming down.
Composition for Serpents, for trimming Signal Rockets.
Meal-powder,16 parts.
Saltpetre,3——
Sulphur,2——
Charcoal,½——
The star composition is the same as before given.[36] It is mixed and made into balls or cubes, in the same manner. The petards or crackers are small cubes of paper, filled with grained gunpowder. They are wrapped with two layers of good thread, which is drawn tight in every direction. They are dipped in tar to give them more consistence, and pierced and primed with quick match. We have already given the theory of the flight of rockets in the first part of this work; and also the opinions of Mariotte and Dr. Desaguliers. On this head, therefore, further observation seems unnecessary We have said, however, that it is necessary, for giving the rocket a sufficient degree of motion, that the powder within the rocket be bored with a tapering cavity from the choke, and at the choke this cavity must be as wide as the choke itself, and at the further end, not more than half that width. The length of this bore must be but one inner diameter of the rocket, short of the whole height to which the rocket is rammed. The use of this bore, it is to be observed, is to increase the surface, that takes fire at once; that a greater body of fire may issue out of the mouth of the rocket. From the vehemence with which the fire issues out, the rocket receives its motion. We have seen, that rockets are used in all fire-works that have motion; for cases charged give motion to wheels of various kinds, and act on the same principle. Such works as are thrown into the air after the manner of bombs, are, however, an exception.
The rocket-stick is a necessary appendage. When very heavy, to prevent mischief by their fall, they now bore the sticks, and fill them with powder, that they may shiver in the air before they fall.
That the stick keeps the rocket perpendicular is obvious. If the rocket should begin to tumble, moving round a point in the choke, as being the common centre of gravity of rocket and stick, there would be so much friction against the air, by the stick between the centre and the point, and the point would beat against the air with so much velocity, that the reaction of the medium would restore it to its perpendicularity. When the composition is burnt out, and the impulse upwards has ceased, the common centre of gravity is brought lower towards the middle of the stick. Hence the velocity of the point of the stick is decreased, and that of the point of the rocket increased; so that the whole will tumble down, with the rocket end foremost. During the combustion of the rocket, the common centre of gravity is shifting and getting downwards, and faster and lower as the stick is lighter.
In the Philosophical Transactions, (vol. xlvi, p. 578) and Robins's Mathematical Tracts, (vol. i, p. 317, &c.) are sundry experiments, and observations concerning the flight of rockets; and as these experiments appertain more to military purposes, the following extracts may, on that account, be useful.
Mr. Robins, considering the great use that may be made of rockets, in determining the position of distant places, and in giving signals for naval and military purposes, procured some, with a view of ascertaining the height to which they rise, and the distance at which they may be seen. The greatest part of them did not rise to above four hundred yards; one to about five hundred; and one to six hundred yards nearly. The greatest distance at which these were observed, was from thirty-five to thirty-eight miles. Others were fired at a different time, one of which rose to six hundred and ninety yards; and it was observed, that the largest, which were about two and a half inches in diameter, rose the highest. In some subsequent experiments, conducted by Mr. Da Costa, Mr. Banks, &c. it was found, that, of two rockets, of about three and a half inches in diameter, one rose to about eight hundred and thirty-three, and the other to 915 yards. In another trial, a rocket of four inches in diameter rose to one thousand one hundred and ninety yards. In other experiments, a rocket of one and a half inches rose to seven hundred and forty-three yards; one of two inches to six hundred and fifty nine; one of two and a half inches to eight hundred and eighty; another of the same size to one thousand and seventy-one; one of three inches to one thousand two hundred and fifty-four; one of three and a half inches to one thousand one hundred and nine; and one of four inches rose to seven hundred yards, and, turning, fell to the ground before it went out. Besides these, there was one of the rockets of "twenty-four inches in diameter,"[37] which rose to seven hundred and eighty four yards, and another of the same size, to eight hundred and thirty-three yards. From these experiments, it is inferred, that rockets from two and a half to three and a half inches in diameter, are sufficient to answer all the purposes for which they are intended; and they may be made to rise to a height, and to afford a light capable of being seen to considerably greater distances than those just mentioned.
Before we mention the war-rockets of Congreve, it may not be improper to speak of the Indian rockets, which are used by the native troops of India, and which were employed against the British, with great effect, during the seige of Seringapatam in 1799. These rockets are made of iron, and are lashed to a bamboo cane. The weight is seldom more than two pounds, or less than one. The fougette, or Indian rocket, resembles in shape a sky-rocket, whose flight is gradually brought to run along a horizontal direction. By throwing several fougettes into parks of artillery, and upon caissons, &c. considerable damage might be occasioned from the fire, which would inevitably be communicated to some part. A fougette forces itself immediately forward, cuts as it penetrates, by the formation of its sides, which are filled with small spikes, becomes combustible, and on fire at all its points, and possesses within itself a thousand different means, by which it can adhere to whatever object it is destined to set on fire or destroy. A French writer even asserts, that this weapon would be more effectual, because it might be more variously applied, to defend the mouth of a harbour against an enemy's shipping, than red-hot balls can ever prove; and we are also told, that, by means of their natural velocity, they would do more execution, in a less space of time, than the most active piece of ordnance could effect; and they would also require fewer hands, as the only necessary operation would be to light and dart them forward.
The fougette, called also in French the Baguette à feu, has received improvements in France, which we will notice hereafter. In favour of these improvements and their application, we are told, that, to do execution at a distance, especially in sea-fights, fougettes may be so made as that they may reach shipping at a great distance, and with a given velocity.
The Congreve rocket is a new species of war-rocket, invented by Sir William Congreve. This incendiary rocket drew the attention of the European nations, after the attack of the British on Copenhagen; where, we are informed, they did incredible execution. This rocket may be considered to be a carrier of fire. Their effect, however, in the Chesapeake, and elsewhere, during the late war, was very trifling. They seemed, in fact, little calculated to injure and more to intimidate.[38] They differ from the common rocket as well in their magnitude and construction, as in the powerful nature of their composition; which is such, that without the encumbrance of any ordnance, (the rocket containing the propelling power wholly within itself), balls, shells, case-shot and carcasses, may be projected to the distance of one thousand to three thousand yards. The principle of projectile force is so greatly increased, as not only to triple the flight of small rockets so formed, but also to allow of the construction of rockets of such dimensions, as, on the ordinary principles of combination, would not even rise from the ground, and of such powers of flight and burthen, as have hitherto been considered altogether impracticable.
On the basis of this increase of power, Congreve has succeeded in making this rocket. They are formed of various dimensions, as well in length as in caliber, and are differently armed, according as they are intended for the field, or for bombardment and conflagration; carrying in the first instance either shells or case shot, and in the second, for the purpose of destroying shipping, buildings, stores, &c. a peculiar species of composition, which never fails of destroying every combustible material with which it comes in contact. The latter are called carcass-rockets, and were first used at Boulogne in 1805, after many experiments, which were made by Congreve, at Woolwich. The attack in 1806 was merely desultory, in which not more than 200 rockets were fired. The town was set on fire by the first discharge, and continued burning for near two days. After the affair at Copenhagen, which established their reputation, it appears that a committee of officers, who had witnessed their effect in that bombardment, pronounced them to be "a powerful auxiliary to the present system of artillery."
At the seige of Flushing, they appear to have been used with success, and general Monnet, the French commandant, made a formal remonstrance to lord Chatham respecting the use of them in that bombardment. The rocket system was also tried with success, and the crown prince of Sweden was the first general, who bore testimony to their effects in this service. At the memorable battle of Leipzig, they proved, we are informed, a powerful weapon, and also, when the British army under Wellington, crossed the Adour. In 1814, a rocket-corps was established in the British service.
General de Grave transmitted, to the Society of Encouragement of Paris, a Congreve rocket, or an English incendiary rocket, which was found on the French coast. M. Gay-Lussac examined it. The case was made with gray paper, and painted. The inflammable matter was of a yellowish-gray, and the sulphur was distinguishable with the naked eye. It burnt with a quick flame, and exhaled sulphurous acid gas.
According to his analysis, (Archives des Découvertes, ii, 303), the composition gave
Nitrate of potassa,75.00
Charcoal,1.6
Sulphur,23.4
———
100
———
Gay-Lussac, after determining the proportions of the constituent parts, made a composition of a similar kind, and charged a case, which exhibited the same properties as the English rocket.
The great general point of excellence of the rocket system, if we may judge from the account of English writers, is the facility with which all the natures of this weapon may be conveyed and applied. Its peculiar applicability to naval bombardment is said to rest on this property, that there is no reaction, no recoil in the firing of the largest rocket; so that by this means carcasses, equal to those projected by the largest mortars, may be thrown from the smallest boats. Its peculiar fitness for land service is, that it is a description of extremely powerful ammunition without ordnance, so that the burthen of mortars and guns is dispensed with, and all that is to be carried is actual available missile matter, capable of range, and of many of the most important effects of the heaviest artillery. The rocket system, as a system of ammunition without ordnance, is highly extolled by British writers.
We will now speak of their construction. All rockets designed for service are cylindrical, having strong metallic cases, and armed, as we before observed, either with carcass composition for bombardment and conflagration, or with shells and case shot for field service. They are, however, of various weights and dimensions, from the eight-inch carcass or explosion rocket, weighing nearly three hundred weight, to the six pound shell rocket, which is the smallest size, used in the field. The sticks, which are employed for regulating their flight, are also of different lengths, according to the size and service of the rocket; and which, for the convenience of carriage, are stowed apart from the rocket, and so contrived as to consist of two or more parts, which are connected to it, and to each other, when requisite, with the utmost expedition. The 32 pounder rocket carcass, which is the nature hitherto chiefly used for bombardment, will range 3000 yards with the same quantity of combustible matter as that contained in the 10 inch spherical carcass, and 2500 yards with the same quantity as that of the 13 inch spherical carcass. The 12 pounder rocket case shot, which is so portable that it may be used with the facility of musketry, has a range nearly double that of field artillery, carrying as many bullets as the 6 pounder spherical case. We may remark here, that the projectile force of the rocket is well calculated for the conveyance of case shot to great distances; because, as it proceeds, its velocity is accelerated instead of being retarded, as happens with any other projectile; while the average velocity of the shell is greater than that of the rocket only in the ratio of 9 to 8. Independent of this, the case shot conveyed by the rocket admits of any desired increase of velocity in its range by the bursting of powder, which cannot be obtained in any other description of case.
Rocket ammunition is divided into three classes, heavy, medium, and light; the former including all those above 42 lbs., which are denominated according to their caliber, as eight-inch, seven-inch, &c. rockets; the medium including all those from 42 lbs. to 24 lbs.; and the light embracing from 18 pounder to 6 pounder inclusive.