PREFACE

There is a growing conviction among those engaged in training teachers that the History of Education must justify itself. It is believed that, if this subject is to contribute to the professional equipment of the teacher, its material must be selected with reference to his specific needs. Antiquarian interests and encyclopædic completeness are alluring and may in their place prove praiseworthy and valuable, but they do not in themselves supply any definite demand in the training of teachers. The greatest services that the History of Education can perform for the teacher are to impel him to analyze his problems more completely and to throw light upon the school practices with which he is himself concerned. By presenting a series of clear-cut views of past conditions, often in marked contrast to his own, it should make him conscious that the present educational situation has to a large degree been traditionally received, and it should at the same time especially help him to understand the origin and significance of current practices.

In this way a study of the History of Education will disrupt the teacher’s complacent acceptance of the present, and will enable him to reconstruct his ideas in the light of the peculiar conditions out of which the education of his times has sprung. Whenever historical records do not assist in such an analysis and synthesis of present day problems, they may be frankly dismissed from discussion. This conception of the subject, I have myself, with much reluctance, come to accept. My own regard for the classics, philosophy, and general history as college disciplines has caused me to view with apprehension any disposition to curtail their scope. It now seems clear, however, that the modern tendency to emphasize the functional aspects of the History of Education is both necessary and wise. The present work, therefore, is not a mere condensation of my History of Education in Three Volumes, but has been very largely re-written from the new angle.

In the first place, I have sought to stress educational institutions and practices, rather than theories that did not find embodiment in the times. This has led to the omission of much that is unessential or more strictly related to philosophy, general history, or literature. For example, even the immortal work of Plato and Aristotle has been epitomized; the entire subject of mysticism and most of scholasticism have been dropped; the masterpieces of such pure theorists as Rabelais, Montaigne, and Mulcaster, are barely mentioned; and the various historical epochs are given only so much detail as may be needed to form a social setting for the educational movements of those periods.

Secondly, it has seemed to me that our present problems in education can best be analyzed through a knowledge of the practices that have developed in modern times. Hence, while this book includes an account of all educational endeavor from the day of primitive man to the present, somewhat more than one-half the material is connected with the last two centuries. Even the attractive period of Hellenic activity and the fascinating stories of monasticism and of chivalry have been reduced to a minimum. But, though most of the changes in the earlier half of the work are in the nature of shortening, or have to do with more immediate connections, some topics, notably the development of commerce and cities (Chapter XI) and the analysis of formal discipline (Chapter XVI), have seemed to be so closely connected with subsequent progress as to deserve more adequate treatment.

Finally, since this book is intended chiefly for teachers in the United States, I have believed it most helpful to give considerable space to the discussion of American education. The account of each educational movement has included at least an attempt to trace its influence upon the content, method, and organization of education in the United States, while three chapters have been devoted exclusively to the rise of educational systems in this country.

My indebtedness for many valuable features in this book is heavy. The idea of an Outline, which appears at the beginning of each chapter, was first suggested to me by the History of Modern Elementary Education of Dean S. C. Parker of the College of Education, University of Chicago, although I have adopted a different explanation of its value. Professor Parker also read through the manuscript and sent me a general estimate of it. Professors J. H. Coursault of the University of Missouri, A. J. Jones of the University of Maine, W. H. Kilpatrick of Columbia University, A. R. Mead of Ohio Wesleyan University, and A. L. Suhrie of the West Chester (Pennsylvania) State Normal School, have all read the manuscript through with exceeding care and furnished me with numerous corrections and criticisms, both particular and general. Professor T. H. Briggs of Columbia University suggested a number of improvements in the chapter upon Present Day Tendencies in Education (XXVII). The chapter upon the Educational Influences of the Reformation (XIII) has been relieved of several inaccuracies, and possibly of some Protestant bias, through the assistance of the Rev. Benedict Guldner, S. J., of St. Joseph’s College, and of Brother Denis Edward, F. S. C., President of La Salle College, Philadelphia. I have also, as usual, been greatly aided by my wife, Helen Wadsworth Graves.

F. P. G.

CONTENTS

PART I

ANCIENT TIMES

CHAPTER I

PAGE

The Earliest Education 3

The Value of the History of Education. Its Treatment in This Book. Primitive Education. Oriental Education. India: Its Religion and Castes. The Hindu Education. Effect of the Hindu Education. India as Typical of the Orient. Jewish Education.

CHAPTER II

The Education of the Greeks 11

Progressive Nature of Greek Education. Spartan Education: Its Aim and Early Stages. Training in Youth and Manhood: Results. Old Athenian Education: Its Aim and Early Training. Training for the Youth. Effect of the Old Athenian Education. Causes and Character of the New Athenian Education. The Sophists and Their Training. Their Extreme Individualism. The Reactionaries and the Mediators. The Method of Socrates. Plato’s System of Education for the Three Classes of Society. The Weakness of Plato’s System. His Influence upon Educational Theory and Practice. Aristotle’s Ideal State and Education. The Permanent Value of His Work. The Post-Aristotelian Schools of Philosophy. The Schools of Rhetoric. The Hellenic Universities. Extension of Hellenic Culture.

CHAPTER III

The Education of the Romans 32

Roman Education Amalgamated with Greek. Early Education in Rome. The Absorption of Greek Culture. The Ludus. Grammar Schools. Rhetorical Schools. Universities. Subsidization of Education. Decay of Education. Influence of Roman Education.

CHAPTER IV

The Education of the Early Christians 42

The Ideals of Early Christianity. Early Christian Life as an Education. Catechumenal Schools. Amalgamation of Christianity with Græco-Roman Philosophy. Catechetical and Episcopal or Cathedral Schools. Influence of Græco-Roman Culture upon Christianity. Rise of the Monastic Schools.

PART II

THE MIDDLE AGES

CHAPTER V

The Monastic Education 53

The Middle Ages as a Period of Assimilation and Repression. The Evolution and Nature of Monasticism. Benedict’s ‘Rule’ and the Multiplication of Manuscripts. Amalgamation of Roman and Irish Christianity. The Organization of the Monastic Schools. The ‘Seven Liberal Arts’ as the Curriculum. The Methods and Texts. Effect upon Civilization of the Monastic Schools.

CHAPTER VI

Charlemagne’s Revival of Education 60

Condition of Education in the Eighth Century. Higher Education at the Palace School. Educational Improvement in the Monastic, Cathedral, and Parish Schools. Alcuin’s Educational Work at Tours. Rabanus Maurus, Erigena, and Others Concerned in the Revival.

CHAPTER VII

Moslem Learning and Education 65

The Hellenization of Moslemism. Hellenized Moslemism in Spain. Effect upon Europe of the Moslem Education.

CHAPTER VIII

Educational Tendencies of Scholasticism 69

The Nature of Scholasticism. The History of Scholastic Development. Scholastic Education. Its Value and Influence.

CHAPTER IX

The Mediæval Universities 74

The Rise of Universities. The Foundation of Universities at Salerno, Bologna, and Paris. Bologna and Paris as the Models for Other Universities. Privileges Granted to the Universities. Organization of the Universities. Course in the Four Faculties. The Methods of Instruction. Examinations and Degrees. The Value and Influence of the University Training.

CHAPTER X

The Education of Chivalry 83

The Development of Feudalism. The Ideals of Chivalry. The Three Preparatory Stages of Education. The Effects of Chivalric Education.

CHAPTER XI

The Burgher, Gild, and Chantry Schools 88

The Rise of Commerce and Industry. Development of Cities and the Burgher Class. The Gilds and Industrial Education. Gild Schools. Burgher Schools. Chantry Schools. Influence of the New Schools.

PART III

THE TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES

CHAPTER XII

The Humanistic Education 99

The Passing of the Middle Ages. The Renaissance and the Revival of Learning. Causes of the Awakening in Italy. The Revival of the Latin Classics. The Development of Greek Scholarship. The Court Schools and Vittorino da Feltre. The Court School at Mantua. The Relation of the Court Schools to the Universities. Decadence of Italian Humanism. The Spread and Character of Humanism in the Northern Countries. The Development of Humanism in France. French Humanistic Educators and Institutions. Humanism in the German Universities. The Hieronymians and Their Schools. Erasmus, Leader in the Humanistic Education of the North. The Development of Gymnasiums: Melanchthon’s Work. Sturm at Strassburg. Formalism in the Gymnasiums. The Humanistic Movement in England: Greek at Oxford and Cambridge. Humanism at the Court Colet and His School at St. Paul’s. Humanism in the English Grammar Schools. English Grammar and Public Schools To-day. The Grammar Schools in the American Colonies. The Aim and Institutions of Humanistic Education.

CHAPTER XIII

Educational Influences of the Reformation 124

The Relation of the Reformation to the Renaissance. The Revolt and Educational Works of Luther. Luther’s Ideas on Education. The Embodiment of Luther’s Ideas in Schools by His Associates. The Revolt and Educational Ideas of Zwingli. Calvin’s Revolt and His Encouragement of Education. The Colleges of Calvin. Henry VIII’s Revolt and Its Effect upon Education. Foundation of the Society of Jesus. Organization of the Jesuits. The Jesuit Colleges. The Jesuit Methods of Teaching. Value and Influence of the Jesuit Education. The Organization of the Education of the Port Royalists. The Port Royal Course and Method of Teaching. La Salle and the Schools of the Christian Brothers. The Aim, Curriculum, and Method of the Christian Brothers’ Schools. Influence of the Schools of the Christian Brothers. Aim and Content of Education in the Reformation. Effect of the Reformation upon Elementary Education. Effect of the Reformation upon the Secondary Schools. Influence of the Reformation upon the Universities. The Lapse into Formalism.

CHAPTER XIV

Early Realism and the Innovators 151

The Rise and Nature of Realism. Humanistic Realism. Social Realism. The Relations of Humanistic to Social Realism. The Influence of the Innovators upon Education. The Ritterakademien. The Academies In England. The Academies in America.

CHAPTER XV

Sense Realism and the Early Scientific Movement 162

The Development of the Sciences and Realism. Bacon and His Inductive Method. Bacon’s Educational Suggestions and Influence. Ratich’s Methods. Comenius: His Training and Work. His Series of Latin Texts. The Great Didactic. His Encyclopædic Arrangement of Knowledge. The Method of Nature. The Influence of Comenius upon Education. Realistic Tendencies in Elementary Schools. Secondary Schools. The Universities.

CHAPTER XVI

Formal Discipline in Education 179

Locke’s Work and Its Various Classifications. Locke’s Disciplinary Theory in Intellectual Education. Disciplinary Attitude in Moral and Physical Training. Origin, Significance, and Influence of the Theory of Formal Discipline. Opposition to the Disciplinary Theory and More Recent Modification. Locke’s Real Position on Formal Discipline.

CHAPTER XVII

Education in the American Colonies 187

American Education a Development from European. Conditions in Europe from Which American Education Sprang. Colonial School Organization: The Aristocratic Type in Virginia. The Parochial Schools in New Netherlands. Sectarian Organization of Schools in Pennsylvania. Town Schools in Massachusetts. Education in the Other Colonies.

PART IV

MODERN TIMES

CHAPTER XVIII

Growth of the Democratic Ideal in Education 203

The Revolt from Absolutism. The Two Epochs in the Eighteenth Century. Voltaire and the Encyclopedists. Rousseau and His Times. Rousseau’s Works.

CHAPTER XIX

Naturalism in Education 210

The Influence of Rousseau’s Naturalism. Naturalistic Basis of the Emile. The Five Books of the Emile. Estimate of the Emile. The Sociological Movements in Modern Education. The Scientific Movement in Modern Education. The Psychological Movements in Modern Education. The Spread of Rousseau’s Doctrines. Development of Basedow’s Educational Reforms. Text-books and Other Works. Course and Methods of the Philanthropinum. Influence of the Philanthropinum.

CHAPTER XX

Philanthropy in Education 230

Reconstructive Tendencies of the Eighteenth Century. The Rise of Charity Schools in England. The Schools of the S. P. C. K. Other Charity Schools. The Charity Schools of the S. P. G. Charity Schools among the Pennsylvania Germans. The ‘Sunday School’ Movement in Great Britain. The ‘Sunday School’ Movement in the United States. Value of the Instruction in ‘Sunday Schools.’ The Schools of the Two Monitorial Societies. Value of the Monitorial System in England. Results of the Monitorial System in the United States. The ‘Infant Schools’ in France. The ‘Infant Schools’ in England. ‘Infant Schools’ in the United States. The Importance of Philanthropic Education.

CHAPTER XXI

The Period of Transition in American Education 251

Evolution of Public Education in the United States. Rise of the Common School in Virginia. Similar Developments in the Other Southern States. Evolution of Public Education in New York. New York City. Development of Systems of Education in Pennsylvania and the Other Middle States. Decline of Education in Massachusetts. Developments in the Other New England States. The Extension of Educational Organization to the Northwest. Condition of the Common Schools Prior to the Awakening.

CHAPTER XXII

Observation and Industrial Training in Education 276

Pestalozzi as the Successor of Rousseau. Pestalozzi’s Philanthropic and Industrial Ideals. His Industrial School at Neuhof and the Leonard and Gertrude. His School at Stanz and Beginning of His Observational Methods. Continuation of His Methods at Burgdorf, and How Gertrude Teaches Her Children. The ‘Institute’ at Yverdon and the Culmination of the Pestalozzian Methods. Pestalozzi’s Educational Aim and Organization. His General Method. The Permanent Influence of Pestalozzi. The Spread of Pestalozzian Schools and Methods through Europe. Pestalozzianism in the United States. Pestalozzi’s Industrial Training Continued by Fellenberg. The Agricultural School and Other Institutions at Hofwyl. Industrial Training in the Schools of Europe. Industrial Institutions in the United States.

CHAPTER XXIII

Development of Public Education in the United States 302

The Third Period in American Education. Early Leaders in the Common School Revival. Work of James G. Carter. Horace Mann as Secretary of the Massachusetts Board. The Educational Suggestions and Achievements of Mann. Henry Barnard’s Part in the Educational Awakening. Barnard as Secretary of the Connecticut State Board. Commissioner of Common Schools in Rhode Island. State Superintendent of Schools in Connecticut. Barnard’s American Journal of Education. First United States Commissioner of Education. Value of Barnard’s Educational Collections. Educational Development in New England since the Revival. Influence of the Awakening upon the Middle States. Public Education in the West. Organization of State Systems in the South. Development of the American System of Education.

CHAPTER XXIV

Development of Educational Practice 333

Froebel and Herbart as Disciples of Pestalozzi. The Early Career and Writings of Herbart. Work at Königsberg and Göttingen. Herbart’s Psychology. The Aim, Content, and Method. The Value and Influence of Herbart’s Principles. The Extension of His Doctrines in Germany. Herbartianism in the United States. Froebel’s Early Life. His Experiences at Frankfort, Yverdon, and Berlin. The School at Keilhau. Development of the Kindergarten. Froebel’s Fundamental Concept of ‘Unity.’ Motor Expression as His Method. The Social Aspect of Education. The Kindergarten. The Value and Influence of Froebel’s Principles. The Spread of Froebelianism through Europe. The Kindergarten in the United States. The Relative Influence of Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel.

CHAPTER XXV

The Development of Modern Systems 370

National Systems of Education in Europe and Canada. The Beginning of State Control in Prussia. Educational Achievements of Frederick the Great. Educational Influence of Zedlitz. Foundation of the Ministry of Education and Further Progress. The Elementary System. The Secondary System. Higher Education. Educational Development In France. The Primary School System. The Secondary System. The Institutions of Higher Education. Centralized Administration of the French Education. Early Development of English Education. Educational Movements in the Nineteenth Century. Subsequent Educational Movements. Development of Education in the Dominion of Canada. The Public School System of Ontario. The System of Ecclesiastical Schools in Quebec.

CHAPTER XXVI

The Scientific Movement and the Curriculum 397

The Development of the Natural Sciences in Modern Times. The Growth of Inventions and Discoveries in the Nineteenth Century. Herbert Spencer and What Knowledge is of Most Worth. Advocacy of the Sciences by Huxley and Others. The Disciplinary Argument for the Sciences. Introduction of the Sciences into Educational Institutions in Germany, France, England, and the United States. Interrelation of the Scientific with the Psychological and Sociological Movements.

CHAPTER XXVII

Present Day Tendencies in Education 418

Recent Educational Progress. The Growth of Industrial Training. Industrial Schools in Europe. Industrial Training in the United States. Commercial Education in Europe and America. Recent Emphasis upon Agricultural Training. Moral Training in the Schools To-day. The Development of Training for Mental Defectives. Education of the Deaf and Blind. Recent Development of Educational Method; Dewey’s Experimental School. Other Experiments in Method. The Montessori Method. The Statistical Method and Mental Measurements in Education. Education and the Theory of Evolution. Enlarging Conceptions of the Function of Education.

CHAPTER XXVIII

Retrospect and Prospect 441

The Development of Individualism. The Harmonization of the Individual and Society.

Index 447

ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate Fig. Opposite Page

1. 1. Elders explaining to young men of an Australian tribe at the ‘initiatory ceremonies’ 8

2. A Hindu school in the open air, with the village schoolmaster teaching boys to write on a strip of palm leaf with an iron stylus 8

2. 3. The palæstra in education at Athens 14

4. The didascaleum in education at Athens 14

3. 5. Roman school materials 36

6. Scene at a ludus or Roman elementary school 36

4. 7. A monk in the scriptorium 56

8. A monastic school 56

5. 9. The temple of wisdom; an allegorical representation of the mediæval course of study 72

6. 10. The lecture in mediæval universities 80

11. The disputation in mediæval universities 80

7. 12 and 13. Preliminaries and termination of a combat in the education of chivalry 86

14. Boys playing tournament with a ‘quintain’ or dummy man 86

8. 15. Apprenticeship training in a gild 92

16. Gild school at Stratford, where Shakespeare learned ‘little Latin and less Greek’ 92

9. 17. Great English Public Schools: Winchester and Eton 120

10. 18. Education of the Jesuits: Jesuit College at Regensburg and diagram of a Jesuit schoolroom 136

11. 19. School of the Christian Brothers at Rouen 146

20. A Protestant school in a German village of the sixteenth century 146

12. 21. A page from the Orbis Pictus of Comenius, illustrating a lesson on a trade 170

13. 22. Town school at Dedham (Massachusetts) with watch-tower, built in 1648 198

23. Boston Latin School, founded in 1635 198

24. The buildings of Harvard College, erected in 1675, 1699, and 1720 198

14. 25. The child as a miniature adult 228

26. A naturalistic school 228

15. 27. A monitorial schoolroom 242

28. Pupils reciting to monitors 242

29. Monitor inspecting slates 242

16. 30. A ‘kitchen school’ 268

31. A colonial ‘summer school’ 268

32. The first ‘academy’ founded by Benjamin Franklin at Philadelphia in 1750 268

17. 33. ‘Father’ Pestalozzi at Stanz 282

34. The ‘table of units’ of Pestalozzi 282

18. 35. Court of Fellenberg’s Agricultural Institute 298

36. General view of Fellenberg’s schools and workshops 298

19. 37. James G. Carter 312

38. Horace Mann 312

39. Henry Barnard 312

40. Francis W. Parker 312

20. 41. The first high school, established at Boston in 1821 332

42. The University of Michigan in 1855 332

21. 43. ‘The Carpenter’ from Froebel’s Mother Play 360

22. 44. Jean Jacques Rousseau 368

45. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi 368

46. Johann Friedrich Herbart 368

47. Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel 368

In text. 48. Diagram of German education 380

In text. 49. Diagram of French education 392

In text. 50. Diagram of English education 392

23. 51. Charles Darwin 404

52. Herbert Spence 404

53. Thomas H. Huxley 404

54. Charles W. Eliot 404

In text. 55. Diagram of vocational education of boys in Germany 424

24. 56. Indian house constructed in Dewey’s experimental school 436

57. Part of the Thorndike Writing Scale 436