CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION—The Three General Periods of the History of Philosophy, 1

The Comparative Lengths of the Three General Periods, 1

The Real Differences of the Three General Periods, 1

Table of the Subdivisions of the Three General Periods, 4

BOOK I. ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY (625 B. C.–476 A. D.)

CHAPTER I. The Early Greek in Ancient Philosophy, 5

The Divisions of Ancient Philosophy, 5

The Literary Sources of Ancient Philosophy, 6

The Environment of the Early Greek, 7

1. His Geographical Environment 7

2. His Political Environment 7

The Native Tendencies of the Early Greek, as seen (1) In the Development of his Religion, (2) in his Reflections upon Physical Events, and (3) in his Interest in Human Conduct, 9–11

The Three Periods of Greek Philosophy, 12

CHAPTER II. The Cosmological Period: The Philosophy of Nature, 15

The Peril in the Greek Political Situation: Persia and Carthage, 15

The Peril in the New Religion: The Mysteries and Pythagoras, 16

Characteristics of the Cosmologists, 18

Table of Cosmologists, 20

How the Philosophical Question arose, 20

Map showing the Cities where the Cosmologists lived, 21

Summary Comparison of the Monistic Philosophies, 22

1. The Milesian School, 24

The Milesian Philosophy, 25

2. Xenophanes, the Religious Philosopher, 26

The Philosophy of Xenophanes, 27

3. Heracleitus, “the Misanthropist” and “the Obscure,” 28

a. Heracleitus’ Doctrine of Absolute and Universal Change, 28

b. Fire is the Cosmic Substance, 29

c. The Definite Changes of Fire, 30

d. The Practical Philosophy of Heracleitus, 31

4. The Eleatic School, 32

a. Parmenides, 32

(1) The Cosmic Substance is Being, 33

(2) Other Things than the Cosmic Substance (Being) have no Real Existence, 34

b. Zeno, 35

The Philosophy of Zeno, 36

The Results of the Conflict between Heracleitus and Parmenides, 37

CHAPTER III. Pluralism, 39

Efforts toward Reconciliation, 39

The New Conception of Change of the Pluralists, 40

The New Conception of the Unchanging of the Pluralists—The Element, 40

The Introduction of the Conception of the Efficient Cause, 41

Summary of Similarities and Differences IN the Theories of the Reconcilers, 41

The Pluralistic Philosophers: Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Leucippus, and the Later Pythagoreans, 42

The Philosophy of Empedocles, 44

The Philosophy of Anaxagoras, 45

The Philosophy of the Atomists—Leucippus and the School at Abdera, 47

The Later Pythagoreans, 48

1. The Pythagorean Conception of Being, 49

2. The Pythagorean Dualistic World, 51

3. Pythagorean Astronomy, 52

Historical Retrospect, 53

CHAPTER IV. The Anthropological Period: The Philosophy of Man, 55

An Historical Summary of the Anthropological Period, 55

The Persian Wars and the Rise of Athens, 56

The Greek Enlightenment, 58

1. The Impulse for Learning, 58

2. The Practical Need of Knowledge, 59

3. The Critical Attitude of Mind, 61

The Significance of the Sophists, 64

The Prominent Sophists, 67

The Philosophy of the Sophists, 68

1. The Relativism of Protagoras, 69

2. The Nihilism of Gorgias, 70

The Ethics of the Sophists.—The Application of their Critical Theory to Political Life, 71

Summary, 73

CHAPTER V. Socrates, 74

Socrates and Aristophanes, 74

The Personality and Life of Socrates, 75

Socrates and the Sophists, 80

The Unsystematic Character of the Socratic Philosophy, 82

The Ideal of Socrates, 83

What the Socratic Ideal Involves, 85

The Two Steps of the Method of Socrates, 88

Socrates and Athens, 91

The Logical Expedients of Socrates, 92

Socrates and the Lesser Socratics, 93

The Cynic School, 95

The Cyrenaic School, 96

CHAPTER VI. The Systematic Period, 98

The Waning of the Greek National Spirit, 98

The Place of the Three Systematic Philosophers in Greek History, 98

The Fundamental Principle of the Systematic Period, 100

A Summary of Greek Philosophy, 102

Greek Philosophy (objective), 103

Democritus and Plato—Their Similarities and Differences, 104

The Life of Democritus, 106

The Comprehensiveness of the Aim of Democritus, 108

The Enriched Physics of Democritus—Hylozoism becomes Materialism, 109

The Materialistic Psychology of Democritus, 111

Democritus’ Theory of Knowledge—The World of Twofold Reality, 114

The Ethical Theory of Democritus, 116

CHAPTER VII. Plato, 119

Abdera and Athens, 119

The Difficulties in Understanding the Teaching of Plato, 120

The Life and Writings of Plato, 121

1. Plato’s Student Life, 121

2. Plato as Traveler, 122

3. Plato as Teacher of the Academy, 124

Concerning the Dialogues of Plato, 126

The Factors in the Construction of Plato’s Doctrine, 128

1. His Inherited Tendencies, 128

2. His Philosophical Sources, 130

The Divisions of Plato’s Philosophy, 131

Summary of Plato’s Doctrine, 132

The Formation of Plato’s Metaphysics, 132

The Development of Plato’s Metaphysics—The Development of Plato’s Ideas in the Two Drafts, 136

Brief Comparison of the Two Drafts of the Ideas, 137

Comparison of the Two Drafts of Ideas in More Detail, 137

1. The Number of Ideas in the Earlier and Later Drafts compared, 137

2. The Relation of the Ideas and the World of Nature in the Two Drafts compared, 138

3. The Relation among the Ideas in the Two Drafts compared, 140

Plato’s Conception of God, 141

Plato’s Conception of Physical Nature, 142

Plato’s Conception of Man, 144

Plato’s Doctrine of Immortality, 146

1. The Immortality of Pre-Existence, 146

2. The Immortality of Post-Existence, 149

The Two Tendencies in Plato, 150

Platonic Love, 151

Plato’s Theory of Ethics, 153

1. Development of Plato’s Theory of the Good, 153

2. The Four Cardinal Virtues, 154

3. Plato’s Theory of Political Society, 155

Appendix—Jowett’s Selection of Passages from Plato for English Readers, 158

CHAPTER VIII. Aristotle, 166

Aristotle in the Academy and Lyceum, 166

Biography of Aristotle, 168

Brief Chronological Sketch of Aristotle’s Life, 168

Aristotle’s Biography in Detail, 169

1. First Period—Early Influences, 169

2. Second Period—Traveler and Collector, 171

3. Third Period—Administrator of the Lyceum, 172

The Writings of Aristotle, 173

1. The Popular Writings, published by Aristotle himself, 174

2. The Compilations, 175

3. The Didactic Writings, 175

Aristotle’s Starting-Point, 176

The Fundamental Principle in Aristotle’s Philosophy, 177

Aristotle’s Logic, 180

Aristotle’s Metaphysics, 185

1. Development is Purposeful, 185

2. Aristotle’s Two Different Conceptions of Purpose, 187

3. Aristotle’s Conception of God, 190

4. Aristotle’s Conception of Matter, 191

5. Aristotle’s Conception of Nature, 192

The Mechanical Series,—Aristotle’s Theory of Physics, 194

The Teleological Series: The Qualitative Changes of Phenomena, 196

1. The Psychology of Aristotle, 196

2. The Ethics of Aristotle, 199

(a) The Practical Virtues, 200

(b) The Dianoetic Virtues, 201

The Political Philosophy of Aristotle, 202

CHAPTER IX. The Hellenic-Roman Period, 204

Its Time Length, 204

The Fall of the Greek Nation and the Persistence of its Civilization, 204

Map of the Empire of Alexander, showing the Extension of Hellenism, 205

The Two Parts of the Hellenic-Roman Period, 208

1. The Ethical Period, 208

2. The Religious Period, 208

The Undercurrent of Skepticism in the Hellenic-Roman Period, 209

The Fundamental Problem of the Hellenic-Roman Period, 211

The Centres of Hellenism, 213

1. Athens, 213

2. Alexandria, 215

General Characteristics of the Ethical Period, 215

1. The Abandonment of Metaphysical Speculation, 216

2. The Growth of Science, 216

3. Ethics became the Central Interest, 217

The Schools, 218

Map of Athens, showing the Location of the Four Schools, 219

The Old Schools—The Academy and the Lyceum, 220

1. The Academy, 220

2. The Lyceum, 221

The New Schools—The Epicureans and the Stoics, 222

A Summary of the Agreements and Differences of the Stoics and Epicureans, 225

CHAPTER X. Epicureanism, 227

The Life of Epicurus, 227

The Epicureans, 228

Some Types of Hedonism,—Aristippus, Epicurus, and Rousseau, 228

The Epicurean Ideal, 230

The Place of Virtue in Epicureanism, 233

The Epicurean Wise Man, 234

The Epicurean Wise Man in Society, 235

The Great Obstacles to Happiness, 236

Epicurus’ Conception of the Physical World.—Qualified Atomism, 238

CHAPTER XI. Stoicism, 241

The Position of Stoicism in Antiquity, 241

The Three Periods of Stoicism, 242

1. Period of Formulation of the Doctrine, 242

2. Period of Modified Stoicism, 242

3. Period of Roman Stoicism, 243

The Stoic Leaders, 243

The Stoic Writings, 246

The Stoics and Cynics, 246

The Two Prominent Stoic Conceptions, 247

The Conception of Personality, 248

1. The Stoic Psychology, 248

2. The Highest Good, 250

The Conception of Nature, 251

1. Nature is an All-pervading World-Being, 253

2. Nature is an All-compelling Law, 253

3. Nature is Matter, 254

The Conceptions of Nature and Personality supplement Each Other, 256

The Stoic and Society, 257

Duty and Responsibility, 259

The Problem of Evil and the Problem of Freedom, 260

The Modifications of the Stoic Doctrine after the First Period, 261

CHAPTER XII. Skepticism and Eclecticism, 264

The Appearances of Philosophic Skepticism, 264

The Three Phases of Philosophic Skepticism, 265

1. The First Phase of Philosophic Skepticism is called Pyrrhonism, 265

2. The Second Period of Philosophic Skepticism—The Skepticism of the Academy, 266

3. The Third Period of Philosophic Skepticism—Sensationalistic Skepticism, 268

The Last Century and a Half of the Ethical Period, Eclecticism, 269

CHAPTER XIII. The Religious Period, 273

The Two Causes of the Rise of Religious Feeling, 273

The Need of Spiritual Authority, 275

The Rise of the Conception of Spirituality, 277

The Revival of Platonism, 279

The Divisions of the Religious Period, 280

The Hellenic Religious Philosophies, 282

The Introductory Period of Hellenic Religious Philosophy. The Turning to the Past for Spiritual Authority, 282

1. The Greek-Jewish Philosophy of Philo, 282

2. Neo-Pythagoreanism, 285

The Development Period of Hellenic Religious Philosophy. The Turning to the Present for Spiritual Authority. Platonism and Neo-Platonism, 287

Neo-Platonism and the Two Introductory Philosophies, 288

Neo-Platonism and Christianity, 288

The Periods of Neo-Platonism, 290

The Alexandrian School. The Scientific Theory of Neo-Platonism. The Life and Writings of Plotinus, 290

The General Character of the Teaching of Plotinus, 291

The Mystic God, 292

1. The Supra-Consciousness of God, 292

2. The Conception of Dynamic Pantheism, 293

The Two Problems of Plotinus, 293

The World of Emanations.—The Metaphysical Problem of Plotinus, 294

The Spirit, 294

The Soul, 295

Matter, 295

The Return of the Soul to God.—The Ethical Problem of Plotinus, 297

The Syrian School.—The Systematizing of Polytheisms.—Jamblichus, 298

The Athenian School.—Recapitulation.—Proclus, 299

CHAPTER XIV. Patristics.—The Hellenizing of the Gospel, 302

The Early Situation of Christianity, 302

The Philosophies influencing Christian Thought, 305

The Periods of Early Christianity, 306

The Apologists, 307

The Gnostics, 310

The Reaction against Gnosticism.—The Old Catholic Theologians, 312

Origen and the School of Catechists, 314

BOOK II. THE MIDDLE AGES (476–1453)

CHAPTER XV. Characteristics and Conditions of the Middle Ages, 319

Comparison of the Hellenic-Roman Period and the Middle Ages, 319

The Mediæval Man, 320

How the Universe appeared to the Mediæval Man, 322

Maps of the Ptolemaic Cosmography, 323, 325

The Mediæval Man at School, 325

A Mediæval Library, 326

1. Books most commonly read, 327

2. Books that the scholars might use, 327

3. The Books most influential philosophically upon the time, 328

The Three Periods of the Middle Ages, 328

Summary of the Political and Educational Worlds of the Mediæval Man, 330

CHAPTER XVI. The Early Period of the Middle Ages, 334

The General Character of the Early Period, 334

An Early Mediæval Geographical Map, 335

The Historical Position of Augustine, 335

The Secular Science, 339

The Life of Augustine, 339

The Two Elements in Augustine’s Teaching, 340

The Neo-Platonic Element: the Inner Certainties of Consciousness, 341

The Authority of the Church according to Augustine, 345

The Dark Ages, 347

The Revival of Charlemagne, 349

John Scotus Erigena: Life and Teaching, 350

The Greek Principle which Erigena formulated for the Middle Ages, 352

The Last Century of the Early Period, 353

CHAPTER XVII. The Transitional Period, 354

The General Character of the Transitional Period, 354

What is Scholasticism? 355

Anselm: Life and Position in Mediæval Philosophy, 359

Anselm’s Arguments for the Existence of God, 361

Roscellinus: Life and Teaching, 361

Storm and Stress, 362

The Life of Abelard, 363

Abelard’s Conceptualism. Universals exist in the Particulars, 364

Abelard’s Rationalism.—The Relation between Reason and Dogma, 365

CHAPTER XVIII. The Period of Classic Scholasticism, 368

The General Character of this Last Period, 368

The Two Civilizations, 369

Map showing the Growth of Mohammedan Civilization in the Middle Ages, 370

The First Contact of the Two Civilizations, 372

The Conflict between the Two Civilizations.—The Crusades, 374

The Revival of Learning, 375

Diagram of Dante’s Poetic Conception of the Universe, 376

The Strength and Burden of Aristotle to the Church, 378

1. The Strength of Aristotle to the Church, 378

2. The Burden of Aristotle to the Church, 379

The Predecessors of Aquinas, 379

The Life of Thomas Aquinas.—The Founder of the Dominican Tradition, 380

The Central Principle of Thomas’s Doctrine—The Twofold Truth, 381

The Problem of Individuality—The Relation of Particulars and Universals, 383

The Primacy of the Will or the Intellect, 385

Duns Scotus, The Founder of the Franciscan Tradition—Life and Philosophical Position, 386

Duns Scotus’s Conception of the Twofold Truth.—The Separation of Science and Religion, 387

The Inscrutable Will of God, 388

The Problem of Individuality, 389

After Duns Scotus, 390

William of Ockam: Life and Teaching, 391

After Ockam, 393

INDEX, 395