BOOK V.

SECT. I.—ON THE PRESERVATIVES FROM VENOMOUS ANIMALS IN GENERAL.

In giving an account of animals which emit poisons we shall begin with some general remarks upon them, treating of the preservatives from them in the first place. If therefore a person be compelled to sleep in places infested by venomous animals, especially in such as salamanders, phalangia, or reptiles abound, it will be proper to shut up their holes under ground with garlic pounded in water, or some of the herbs about to be mentioned; and to fumigate with hartshorn, the hoofs or hairs of goats, gagate stone, bitumen, bdellium, galbanum, the shavings of the cypress or cedar, gith, hog’s fennel, the leaves of the chaste tree, calamint, sagapene, castor, the root of rosemary, fleabane, or some of the strong-scented things. Gnats in particular are driven away by fumigations with copperas, the seed of wild gith, and of cumin in equal proportions, and by cows’ dung. In addition to these, frequent fires should be lighted, for reptiles commonly flee from the light. A couch should be prepared by strewing asphodel, calamint, chaste tree, pennyroyal, poley, fleabane, and southernwood; or if it is not possible to make a couch entirely of these, they should at least be laid around the bed. Attention should be paid to such things as are to be boiled, to the water, and wine vessels that they be properly covered up. Fires for the purpose of cooking should not be lighted under particular trees, more especially pitch trees or pines, for salamanders and deadly caterpillars abound on them, which being warmed by the heat of the fire fall upon the victuals, or any other vessels which happen to be uncovered. Those who wish to be particularly guarded, anoint their bodies with a liquid cerate composed of wax, rose-oil, and a little galbanum, and with a little of the shavings of hart’s horn, or Ethiopian cumin. The leaves of mallows triturated with oil when rubbed on the skin protect in an especial manner from bees and wasps.

Commentary. The following is a list of the ancient authorities on Toxicology:

Nicander (Theriaca et Alexipharmaca); Dioscorides (Liber de Venenis); Celsus (v); Scribonius Largus (47, et seq.); Galen (Ther. ad Pison.; Meth. Med., De Antid.); Aëtius (xiii); Pliny (Hist. Nat. pluries); Oribasius (de Morb. Curat. iii); Solinus (Polyhist. 40); Serenus Samonicus; Nonnus; Simeon Seth (de Alimentis pluries); Actuarius (Meth. Med. v); Vegetius (de Mulo-medicina, iii, 77); Avicenna (iv, 6); Rhases (ad Mansor. viii, and Cont. xxxv); Haly Abbas (Pract. iv, Theor. viii); Alsaharavius (Pract. xxx); Serapion (pluries); Anonymi (Fragmentum apud Bernardi Reliq.) The work of Ælius Promotus on Venomous Animals and Poisonous substances, which exists in MS. in the Bibliotheca Vaticana, has never been published as far as we know. It is quoted by Hieronymus Mercurialis (Var. lect), and is noticed by Albertus Fabricius (Bibl. Græc. xiii, 780.) Fabricius supposes it to be the production of Æschrion Empiricus. It is proper to state that whenever we quote the work, it is from the extracts given in Schneider’s Annotations on Nicander.

It is to be borne in mind that the work on Poisons, usually published as the production of Dioscorides, is not held to be genuine by his latest editor, Sprengel; still, however, it is acknowledged by all to be a work of considerable antiquity and of great authority on the subject of ancient Toxicology. The work ‘Euporistôn,’ which is also published with the works of Dioscorides, is generally admitted not to be genuine. It contains, however, some valuable matter on Toxicology and other medical subjects.

These directions of our author for driving away reptiles are mostly taken from Nicander, who recommends fumigations with hartshorn, gagate-stones, sulphur, bitumen, galbanum, juniper, and other such articles. (Ther. 35.) See also Dioscorides (M. M.); Orpheus (de Lapidibus); Geopon. (xiii, 8); and Nonnus (Epit. 261); also Aristot. (H. N. iv, 8); and Pliny (H. N. x, 90).

Virgil makes mention of this practice:

See a long list of substances used in fumigations for driving away serpents in Lucan. (Pharsal. ix, 916.) It is different from that of Nicander and our author. For example: it contains tamarix, costus, thapsos, &c. Arsenic occurs among the articles mentioned by Rhases. (Cont. xxxv.) It is also mentioned in the Geoponics (l. c.)

Nicander affirms, and it has been generally believed, that human saliva proves destructive to serpents. Galen says that it will kill the scorpion. Aristotle states, that it is destructive to most venomous reptiles. (H. A. viii, 28.) Redi maintains that this is an ancient error; but Andreas Laurentius declares that he knew from experience that the human saliva is destructive to serpents.

Nicander recommends a composition containing cedar-berries, fleabane, sage, and other such articles for preserving the body from venomous reptiles. Paxamus directs us to smear the face with a composition made of the roasted flour of fenugreek, with the juice of the wild mallows and oil. (Geopon. xv, 6.) He says it preserves the face from the stings of bees in particular.

The κώνωψ, here translated gnat, as it is in the English version of the scriptures, (Matt. xxiii, 24,) is proved by Bochart (Hierozoon. iii, 442); and by Harris (Nat. Hist. of the Bible), from Aristotle, Plutarch, and others, to mean properly a kind of insect that is bred in the lees of wine.

SECT. II.—THE GENERAL TREATMENT OF ALL PERSONS BITTEN OR STUNG BY ANY VENOMOUS ANIMAL.

If a person happen to be bitten or stung by any venomous animal he ought immediately to get the part sucked. The person who sucks it should not be fasting, and he ought first to rinse his mouth with wine and retain oil in it; and then, if the part admits, it should be cupped with much heat, scarifying also the surrounding parts; for the poison is forced back out of the body along with the spirits and blood which are drawn out. The part in which the wound is situated ought also to be burnt and eschars formed on it, and amputation of the extremities may then be seasonably practised if the animal that inflicted the bite be of a deadly nature, such as the asp, the cerastes, the viper, and the like: as Galen relates that a certain vine-dresser being bitten by a viper, and knowing the animal, immediately cut off the finger that was bitten with his pruning hook, and was entirely freed from the danger. But if the poison be already distributed over the body, venesection ought to be had recourse to immediately, especially if the person bitten be plethoric; and pepper and garlic given to eat with the food, and strong wine to drink, whereby the system will be filled with fresh vapours and a suitable heat. Afterwards cataplasms are to be applied that can warm and stimulate the bite, such as a mixture of the ashes of cabbage or of fig with vinegar, or with the strained lye, or with the sauce of pickle. Likewise onions may be mixed with polenta or bread, and strong leeks with salts, or warm liquid pitch with salts, or cedar-rosin, or goat’s dung. It will also be proper to pour upon the parts hot vinegar in which calamint has been boiled, or with vinegar and sea water, or with brine. We are to apply to the part fowls, more especially hens, cut up and still warm, or other such animals, for they absorb the poison and soothe the pains. And we must have recourse to plasters, such as that formed from salts, that from rosemary and adarce, and on the whole such things as are of an acrid nature. And in general all persons bitten or stung by any venomous animal ought, unless the deep-seated parts are wholly unhurt, to take in the first place potions containing endive, heath, or astragalus with vinegar, or bitumen and Christ’s thorn in like manner, or a decoction of Christ’s thorn; or two drachms of dried weasel with wine, which is a cried-up remedy; or the blood of the sea-tortoise, or a drachm of castor with diluted wine, or a drachm of frankincense, or of Sicyonian root, or the juice of leeks, or ground pine, or alsander, or cinnamon, or birthwort, or the seed of the chaste tree, or cypress balls, or seseli, or pepper, or the seed of trefoil, or bay berries, or river crabs roasted or boiled. Use the following compound theriac.

A theriac for venomous animals, and deleterious substances, and for persons bitten by vipers and scorpions. Of bryony, of opoponax, of Illyrian iris, of the root of rosemary, of ginger, of each, dr. iv; of birthwort, dr. v; of frankincense, of wild rue, of each, dr. iij; of the flour of tares, dr. ij; form trochisks with wine, and give three oboli with wine. Purging will also be proper for them, with sudorifics, and taking the theriac of vipers.

Commentary. These general directions are mostly taken from Dioscorides, who is greatly indebted to Nicander. Neither of them, however, makes mention of venesection among his remedies.

The remedial means recommended by Dioscorides are scarification, cupping, sucking, excision; and in extreme cases, amputation; clysters, and acrid applications to the part in order to clear out the venom; pure wine, must, or acrid substances to extinguish it and counteract its effects; and finally as adjuvants of these means, purging of the bowels, sweating, and some other particular remedies as stated under their proper heads.

The general remedies mentioned by Nicander are, sucking the wound, applying cupping instruments to it, and afterwards strong stimulants, hot irons, and leeches. He directs that the person who sucks it should not be fasting; from which it may be inferred that he had a correct idea that the vessels absorb most readily when in an empty state. This physiological doctrine was lately announced as a new discovery; but frequent allusions to it are to be met with in the works of Galen, our author, Avicenna, Avenzoar, Averrhoes, and Haly Abbas. The dangers resulting from an empty state of the vessels, whether produced by fasting or venesection, is well expressed by Gorræus in his Preliminary Dissertation on the Alexipharmics of Nicander: “Nec vero id tantum incommodi habet fames, sed in multo majus periculum adducit hominem, quando et venæ plurimum exinanitæ et cibum vehementer appetentes, venenum avidius ad se pertrahunt et in intima viscera, cordisque arcem immittunt.” “Quod si quis etiam abundare videatur, et nihil eorum repugnet quæ sunt in venæsectione observanda, sanguinem audacter mittamus, non quidem per initia (sic enim in venas deleteria traherentur, a quibus omni studio atque industriâ excludi debent) sed post vomitus alvique dejectiones,” &c.

Serapion, contrary to most of the authorities, recommends that the person who sucks a poisoned wound, should be in a fasting state; but as he is a servile copyist from his predecessors, it might be suspected that the text is in fault, if the same directions were not given by Rabbi Moyses, with this explanation: that a fasting person will perform this office with more risk to himself, but with greater advantage to the patient, than one who had taken food immediately beforehand. (De Venenis, i, 1.) All this shows how well the ancient savans were acquainted with the physiological fact, that the absorbent powers of the vessels is in the inverse ratio of their state of repletion.

Celsus recommends nearly the same general remedies as Nicander. Thus he directs us in the first place to apply a ligature round the limb, but not too tightly, for fear of occasioning torpor; and then to extract the poison by sucking, or by a cupping instrument along with scarifications. His local applications are of a hot stimulant nature. As internal remedies he recommends emetics, which may be supposed to expel the poison from the system by the concussion which they produce, and various articles of a calefacient nature, such as wine and pepper; because, says he, “maxima pars venenorum frigore interimit.”

Isidorus states in still more general terms that the poisons act by oppressing the vital heat. He says, “Omne autem venenum frigidum est, et ideo anima quæ ignea est, fugit venenum frigidum.” He states, likewise, that poisons do not act upon the system unless mixed with the blood: “Venenum autem dictum eo quod per venas vadit. Infusa enim pestis ejus per venas vegetatione aucta discurrit et animam extinguit. Unde non potest venenum nocere nisi hominis tetigerit sanguinem.” Lucanus: “Noxia serpentum est admixto sanguine pestis.”

This, however, is an imperfect account of the action of poisons, whether such as act by being introduced into the stomach, or those that prove deleterious when applied to a wound. Perhaps the classification given by Avicenna may be mentioned as the most complete of any proposed by the ancient authorities. He states that poisons act either by some certain quality, or by their whole substance. Of the former class some are corrosive and putrefactive, like the lepus marinus; some inflammatory and calefacient, like euphorbium; some frigorific and stupefying, like opium; some prove obstruent of the respiratory passages, like litharge; some act with their whole substance, as the wolf’s bane, and these are the most deleterious of all. Of these some act upon one member in particular, as cantharides upon the bladder, or the lepus marinus upon the lungs, and some upon the whole body as opium. (iv, 6, 1.) Schulze, in his ‘Toxicologia Veterum,’ has stated the ancient arrangement somewhat differently, and we are at a loss to think what authors he has followed. He says, the ancients arranged poisons according to their properties into the frigorific (ψυκτικὰ), corrosive (διαβιβρώσκυντα), and septic (σηπεδονώδη). The frigorific, he properly remarks, are those substances now called narcotics; to which class, as Galen mentions, the conium, poppy, henbane, and mandrake belong. On the action of narcotics, see section xliii. Galen remarks that the human frame becomes habituated to bear the action of these medicines without injury. He mentions the case of an old Attic woman, who by little and little had accustomed herself to take hemlock in any quantity. (De Simpl. iii.)

Avicenna states that the great indications of cure in all cases of poisoning are to comfort and rouse the vital heat, and to resolve (neutralize?) or expel the poison. When the poison is distributed over the system, his remedies are venesection, purging, and the like. He states decidedly that the proper time for venesection is either when the poison is distributed over the body, more especially when it is in a plethoric state, or when the poison is a substance not likely to be absorbed. His other remedies are such as expel the poison from the body, namely, emetics and sudorifics, or such as prevent it from entering the system, namely, ligatures to the extremities, prohibiting sleep, applying cupping instruments, or leeches, sucking the wound, amputation of the limb, using actual and potential cauteries, and keeping the wound long open. Upon the whole the general remedies recommended by him and the other Arabians are little different from those of the Greeks, especially of Dioscorides, who is the great authority upon theriacs.

Haly Abbas allows bleeding when the poison is distributed over the body, and like the others also, makes mention of cupping with heat and of amputation. He also joins in the general praise of the theriac.

Alsaharavius recommends strong ligatures, cupping, and, in urgent cases, amputation. He also approves of applying the bodies of hens still warm. Serapion approves of bleeding under the same circumstances as the others, and of the same general treatment that they recommend. Rhases recommends sucking and cupping the wound, and the application of stimulant dressings, such as a plaster consisting of mustard, lime, and pitch. He, and most of the ancient authorities on toxicology, recommend salt as an application to the wound. Most of them also join Dioscorides in recommending the application of caustic leys. They also in general direct us to prevent sleep. The ligature to prevent absorption is recommended by Rhases, as it is in fact by most of the ancient authorities. As a matter of course all of them speak highly of the theriac, and acquiesce in Galen’s celebrated eulogy upon its virtues. (Ad Pison. ii, 457, ed. Basil.)

The Arabian authorities notice cursorily the treatment of poisoned weapons of war, more especially of the Armenian arrows. Galbanum and assafœtida administered internally, and applied to the wounds in various forms, are the two articles which are most generally approved of by them. They also recommend sucking the wound, as in other cases of poisoning by a wound. (See further, B. vi, 88.)

SECT. III.—ON PERSONS BITTEN BY MAD DOGS, AND ON HYDROPHOBIA.

We have placed the account of persons bitten by mad dogs before all the others because these animals are numerous and domestic, and are frequently seized with madness; because the complaint is difficult to guard against, and the danger inevitable, unless one have recourse to many and suitable remedies. Dogs for the most part become mad during violent heat, but also, as Lycus says, sometimes in extreme cold. When mad they shun drink and food, for they are thirsty but do not drink, and for the most part they pant, hang their ears, and emit much frothy saliva. Generally they utter no sounds, and are as it were delirious, so that they do not recognize persons with whom they are familiar. Wherefore they attack equally without barking all animals, whether wild beasts or men, and bite them. Their bite at first occasions nothing disagreeable except the pain of the wound; but afterwards it brings on the affection called hydrophobia, which makes its attack with convulsions, redness of the whole body, but especially of the countenance, sweating, and anxiety; and those affected shun water when they see it, and some every fluid that is presented to them. Some bark like dogs and bite those who approach them, and so doing they occasion the same affection. The cause of the other symptoms is obvious, being occasioned by the poison affecting all the parts, but as to the dread of water some have said that it is occasioned by inordinate dryness, as if the whole fluids of the body had undergone a change. But Ruffus has pronounced it to be a species of melancholy which affects them, the poison putting on the nature of that humour in like manner as we know other melancholic persons dreading some one thing and some another; which reason accords also with those who say that they think they see the image of the dog that bit them in the water. Of persons falling into this affection we know none who has been saved, except that we have learned the histories of one or two cases, and these were of persons who had been bitten, not by a mad dog, but by some person who had been bitten and imparted the disease to them. But before the affection has made its attack many, even of those who have been bitten by a dog, have been saved. Wherefore we must begin the treatment from thence. And since often from the attack of hydrophobia having not yet come on (for most commonly it comes on about the fortieth day, and in some cases after six months, nay, instances are related of its coming on after seven years,) some supposing that the dog who inflicted the bite was not mad, and making haste to heal up the wound have thereby given rise to the complaint. By the following experiment you may ascertain whether the bite was inflicted by a mad dog or not: Pound walnuts carefully and apply them to the wound, and next day take and present them for food to a cock or hen. At first indeed he will not touch them, but if he is compelled by hunger to eat of them, observe, for if the dog that inflicted the bite was not mad, then the fowl will live, but if mad he will die next day; and then you must hasten to open the wound, and after a few days repeat the same experiment; and when the fowl does not die you may bring the wound to cicatrization, inasmuch as the patient is then freed from danger. Oribasius recommends this experiment: If from the symptoms which we have mentioned we know for certain that the dog is mad, we must have recourse to medicines for laying open the sore, the principal of which is that from pitch, very acrid vinegar, and opoponax, which is described accurately in the section on the wounds of nervous parts. But if the person who has been bitten has a tender skin, it is to be diluted with oil of iris, of balsam, or the like; or having first fomented the sores, apply a cataplasm of garlic. This also forms eschars. A dry escharotic for persons bitten by mad dogs: Of fossile salts, dr. viij; of chalcitis, dr. xvj; of squills, dr. xvj; of green rue, dr. iv; of scraped verdigris, dr. iv; of the seed of horehound, dr. j; use it at first dry that it may form an eschar, and then with rose-oil that the eschars may fall off. Keep the parts from cicatrizing for forty-two days at least. A cataplasm for persons bitten by mad dogs, which keeps the mouth of the wound open: Apply a cataplasm of onions with salts and rue, or of laserwort with salts, or of old pickle, or of the cinders of burnt wood with oil, or of garlic, or apply the leaves of the elder tree, or mint, or baum, each with salts, or walnuts with onions, salts and honey, or the ashes of figs mixed with cerate. Wash the sore with a decoction of camomile in water, and the root of the wild dock. But some burn the sore with heated irons. They ought in the first place to get draughts of simple things, such as buckthorn, wormwood, the juice of laserwort, germander, the water germander, and poley. These are compound applications: Of river crabs, of the shoots of the white vine burnt in a vessel of copper or bronze two spoonfuls, of gentian root triturated one spoonful, give to drink for forty days, with two cyathi of old undiluted wine. Some add two spoonfuls of the blood of the partridge. The crabs are to be taken when the moon is on the increase before sun-rising. But to those who do not drink it every day give a double doze, and sometimes a triple. And the theriac from vipers may be given with advantage. The patient is to be purged with the preparation from the wild cucumber, which is to be given every day with the decoction of sage, or with the Heraclean ironwort, which is also called alysson. Some also give the liver of the dog that inflicted the bite to eat. Such a diet is to be given as blunts and extinguishes the power of the poison, and at the same time prevents it from being carried deeper into the system. Both these ends may be accomplished by drinking old sweet wine that is both undiluted and strong, or milk, and in like manner by eating garlic, onions, and leeks. But if from some hinderance at the commencement the remedies which we have described have been neglected, scarification, cupping, or burning the wound, must not be had recourse to, because the poison has already been carried to the deep-seated parts; but we must use the remedies called metasyncritica, that is to say, when the attack of hydrophobia has not come on. Purging with hiera and divided milk is also to be had recourse to, with sudorifics; and calefacient plasters, and sinapisms are to be applied to every part of the body. But the most effectual of all remedies is a course of hellebore frequently repeated.

Commentary. Aristotle is the first author who mentions hydrophobia, but his account of it is remarkably incorrect, if the text be not corrupted. He says, all animals that are bitten by a rabid dog are affected with the disease except man; and that the disease proves fatal to all animals but man. (H. A. viii, 22.) But see the Annotations of Schneider. (l. c.) Ovid ranks inveterate gout and hydrophobia among the incurable diseases:

Celsus, also, was well aware of the fatal nature of the disease, for which he says the only remedy is to plunge the patient unexpectedly into the cold bath, after which, to prevent convulsions, he is to be put into warm oil. He also approves of giving undiluted wine. As a preventive of the disease he directs the wound to be cauterized. (v, 27.)

Pliny in like manner reckons the disease dangerous, and mentions hellebore as a remedy for it. (H. N. viii, 63; xxix, 32.)

But without doubt the best account of hydrophobia contained in any ancient author is that given by Cælius Aurelianus. We shall now give a short abstract of it. He says the disease may be produced not only by the bite, but likewise by the breath of a rabid dog. This fact is mentioned by other authorities, such as Aretæus (Morb. Acut. vii), and Vegetius (Mulo. Med. iii, 84); and it is confirmed by modern writers, as Gokel, Lister, Rhazouz, and others. He also relates the case of a sempstress who fell into the disease from having sewed a robe which had been torn by a mad dog. Similar cases are related by Hildanus and Heister. He likewise states, what is confirmed by the Arabian authorities, and also by modern experience, that the disease may be brought on by the bite of wolves, bears, leopards, horses, and asses. He mentions the case of a person in whom it was occasioned by a wound inflicted with the spurs of a cock while fighting. Sometimes, too, he adds, it arises in the human subject without any manifest cause, which also is confirmed by modern experience. We once saw the horror of water in a case of Phrenitis. He mentions a singular case of hydrophobia in a child which was affected with a horror of its mother’s breast. His description of the symptoms, if compared with modern descriptions (for example that given by Dr. Goden in Hufeland’s ‘Journal,’ Jan. 1816), will be found in every respect complete and accurate. Thus Cælius says that the pulse is densus, parvus, inordinatus, and Goden found it intermittent and irregular. Cælius says there is a frequent desire of making water, which Goden found to be a constant attendant of the disease. Cælius thought that the stomach is more deranged than any other part, and Goden is of opinion that the splanchnic nerves are particularly affected. In short, Cælius maintained that it is an incendium nervorum; and it appears from him that some of the ancient authorities believed it an inflammatory affection, and treated it by bleeding. He treats it upon much the same principles as Tetanus, that is to say, his great object seems to have been to remove constriction, and with this view he recommends friction with tepid oil, venesection, and all remedies of a relaxant nature. He also directs us to administer clysters of tepid water and oil; and proposes to quench the thirst by forcing a cooling injection up to the stomach; for which purpose pressure with the hands is to be applied externally. He makes mention of the internal administration of hellebore, but disapproves of it. The use of white hellebore, however, is favorably mentioned by Aëtius (vi, 24), by Actuarius (Meth. Med. vi, 11), by Theomnestus (Geopon. xix, 3), by Dioscorides (ii, 3), by Alexander Trallian (i, 15), and by Avicenna (iv, 6, 9.)

Galen, in his work on ‘Antidotes,’ gives prescriptions for several compositions of this sort for the prevention and cure of hydrophobia; and mentions the disease incidentally in several parts of his works, but has nowhere given any description of it. Dioscorides’ account of the symptoms, and his plan of treatment are nearly the same as our author’s. He strongly recommends the cautery.

The external application of the cautery is also commended by Celsus, Galen, Pliny, Scribonius Largus, Aëtius, Actuarius, Nonnus, Avicenna, Rhases, and Alsaharavius.

See a good account of hydrophobia in Haly Abbas (Theor. viii, 20); and in Alsaharavius (Pract. xxx, 2, 30.) None of the ancient authorities insists with so much earnestness as Haly Abbas on the necessity of applying strong stimulants to the wound, namely, the most acrid vinegar, copperas, and the like, so as to keep up a discharge from it for a considerable time. Rhases is a strong advocate for bleeding when the poison is distributed over the system. (Cont. xxxv.)

Perhaps Alexander Aphrodisiensis is correct in stating that the disease in the dog is a species of fever. (Problem.)

There is a sensible account of hydrophobia in a ‘Fragment’ of an anonymous Greek author, published in Bernard’s ‘Reliquiæ.’ The complaint is said to arise either from the bite of a dog, or from humours engendered in the body. It is correctly stated that persons affected with it dread all liquids, so that at the bare mention of them they start up with a scream, trembling, cold sweats, and chattering of the teeth. Among other things cold applications over the stomach and chest are recommended.

SECT. IV.—FOR THE BITES OF DOGS THAT ARE NOT MAD.

On the bites of dogs that are not rabid, as even in this case they possess some poisonous quality, immediately sprinkle some vinegar, and strike the bite with your hand spread out, and then having rubbed nitre with vinegar, pour it from above upon the part. Afterwards, having soaked a new piece of sponge in vinegar or in the vinegar and nitre, apply it for three days, and moisten it; for it will effect a complete cure. Or apply the flour of tares mixed with oil, or new sponge, or unwashed wool soaked in vinegar and oil may be applied; or triturate the leaves of bramble with vinegar, and apply; or onions triturated with honey, or equal parts of the hair of marjoram, of salt, and of onions with honey; or black horehound, which they also call ballotes, with salts. When the bites have already suppurated, apply the flour of tares mixed with honey, for it is particularly applicable. When they are inflamed anoint with litharge triturated with water.

Commentary. See Rhases (ad Mansor. viii, 9; Cont. xxxv); Haly Abbas (Pract. iv, 28); Alsaharavius (Pract. xxx, 2, 31). Haly adopts the treatment laid down by our author. Alsaharavius recommends a composition of fat, wax, pitch, and galbanum.

SECT. V.—ON WASPS AND BEES.

Those who have been stung by bees experience pain, redness, and swelling in the wound, the surrounding parts become tumefied, and the sting remains in the wound; and those stung by wasps experience all the other symptoms, and that in an aggravated degree, only the sting does not remain. Both cases are remedied by rubbing the parts with clay, or cow’s dung, or with the juice of figs, or with the triturated leaves of sycamore, or of mallows; or by applying a cataplasm of barley flour mixed with vinegar. Foment also with brine or sea-water.

Commentary. See a similar plan of treatment recommended by Aëtius, Dioscorides, Nonnus, and Rhases. Simeon Seth recommends the decoction of mallows, which appears to have been a domestic remedy generally used in such cases. See also Geopon. (xii, 12); and Pliny (H. N. xx). Virgil alludes to this practice in a passage which has been often misunderstood. (Georg. iv, 230.) Haly Abbas recommends cold water or snow, also Armenian earth with vinegar, and other applications of the same nature. (Pract. iv, 34.) Alsaharavius mentions the same remedies as Haly, but expresses himself sceptical as to their efficacy. (Pract. xxx, 2, 29.) Rhases, among other applications, mentions a composition of camphor and vinegar; and another containing opium, henbane, and camphor, to be used along with a cloth moistened in snow-water. The Arabian writers on husbandry also recommend the composition from mallows and oil, as a preservative of the face and hands from the stings of bees and wasps. (Casiri, Bibl. Arab. Hisp. 335.)

SECT. VI.—ON THE PHALANGIA, OR VENOMOUS SPIDERS.

When a person has been bitten by a phalangion the part itself appears red, and as if pricked by a sharp-pointed instrument, but it does not swell, nor is it very warm, but it is moderately red, cold, and itchy. Those who have been stung experience a great sense of cold, trembling, heaviness of the body, a cold sweat, constant pain, paleness, and a perpetual desire to make water; in some cases there are dysuria, erection of the genital member, humid eyes, and spasmodic distension about the groins and thighs, a violent gnawing pain of the stomach, loss of taste in the tongue, vomiting of water, or of substances resembling webs, and sometimes these substances are discharged by the urine or bowels. By going into hot water they are freed from pain, but the pain returns again with violence. They are relieved by the application of the ashes of figs mixed with salts triturated in wine, or of the pounded root of the wild pomegranate, or of birthwort with barley flour mixed with vinegar. Bathe the ulcers with hot sea-water, or with the decoction of baum, the leaves of which may also be applied. Recourse must also be had frequently to baths, and potions composed of these things, the seed of southernwood, dill, birthwort, wild chick-peas, Ethiopian cumin, pounded cedar-berries, the bark of the plane tree, the seed of the herb trefoil, the fruit of tamarisk; give two drachms of each of these with one hemina of wine, or a decoction of the green parts of cypress, or of its balls mixed with wine. Some say that the river crab when reduced to juice, with milk, and the seed of parsley, and given, removes the mischief.

Commentary. Nicander describes several species of phalangia, whose bites occasion a variety of symptoms, such as a cold horror, tremblings of the limbs, and in some instances tension of the genital members. On the phalangia, see Aristotle (Hist. Anim. ix, 39); Xenophon (Memorab. i, 3); Pliny (H. N. xix, 9, and xxix, 27); Ælian (H. A. xvii, 11); Solinus (Polyhist. xvii); Phile. (66). The distinction between the phalangia and common spiders is thus stated by Humelbergius: “Araneorum primâ divisione duo genera sunt, unum eorum qui innoxii sunt quos Græci arachnas, Latini araneos dicunt, quorum etiam a Dioscoride duo genera recensentur, unum quod holcon et lycon vocat, alterum vero dicit esse quod candidas, tenues et densas telas operetur. Alterum genus est eorum qui noxii sunt, quos et Græci et Latini phalangia vocant.” (Apud Apuleium.)

Similar modes of treatment to that of our author are recommended by Dioscorides (vi, 42); Celsus (v, 27); Nonnus (270); Aëtius (xiii, 16); Actuarius (Meth. Med. vi, 10); Haly Abbas (Theor. viii, 22); and Alsaharavius (Pract. xxx, 2, 26).

Sprengel allows that there is considerable difficulty in determining the nature of the ancient phalangia. He attempts, however, to refer the different species described by Nicander to their proper names in the Linnæan classification. (Comment. in Dioscoridem.)

Many modern authorities, for example, Gesner, Baglivi, and Andreas Laurentius, have held that the Tarantula, so famous in the annals of the Dancing Mania, was a species of the phalangium. See further Hecker’s Epidem. 113. This seems to be confirmed by Rhases calling a species of the phalangium by the name of tarantula (Contin. xx and xxii); and, indeed, Ardyen seems to settle the question that the tarantula is a species of the phalangia. (De Venen. viii, 5.)

SECT. VII.—ON THE BITE OF THE SPIDER.

There is also a kind of spider, the sting of which occasions intense pains about the middle of the hypochondrium, difficulty of making water, erythema, and sometimes convulsions. Those who are stung by such animals, are relieved by the Theban wild cumin, the seed of the chaste-tree, and by draughts from the leaves of the white poplar, or by applying garlic alone, and taking full draughts of undiluted wine.

Commentary. For the sting of the spider, Celsus recommends garlic mixed with rue and pounded in oil. (vi, 27.) See also Pliny (H. N. xxix, 27); Haly Abbas (Pract. iv, 35); Alsaharavius (Pract. xxx, 2, 24).

SECT. VIII.—ON THE STING OF THE SCORPION.

When one has been stung by a scorpion, the part immediately begins to inflame, becoming hard, red, tense, and painful, being seized at one time with heat, and at another with cold; and when pain is an attendant symptom, it has remissions and exacerbations. These symptoms are followed by sweating, a sense of shivering, trembling, coldness of the extremities, tumour of the groins, and erection of the genital member: sometimes there is a discharge of flatus by the anus with a loud noise, and horripilation, and a painful discoloration on the skin, the pain resembling the prick of a needle. These are immediately relieved by having the juice of the fig poured into the wounds, and the scorpion which stung the person may be pounded and applied to the bite; afterwards salts triturated with linseed and the seed of marshmallows may be applied. Native sulphur, mixed with rosin or turpentine, is also of service; and in like manner, galbanum, spread out into the shape of an oblong pledget and applied, or calamint pounded and applied; and crude barley-flour prepared in wine and the decoction of rue; and in like manner the pounded seed of the herb trefoil may be applied with advantage. They may also take propomata containing two drachms of birthwort, more particularly of its bark with wine; or gentian pounded, or pennyroyal properly boiled, and ten bay-berries bruised, and calamint long boiled with oxycrate, and cyperus with wine; and in like manner, rue, the juice of the fig, and laserwort, if at hand; but otherwise we must use the Parthian juice. The fruit of trefoil and the seed of basil-royal may be taken in a draught with advantage. Silver immediately applied to the wound has a wonderful effect. The benefit of all these may be increased by the frequent use of the bath, copious perspirations, and drinking strong or diluted wine. The following compound propomata may be taken: Of sulphur vivum to the size of an Egyptian bean, with eight grains of pepper in half a hemina of wine, or the juice of laserwort triturated with crabs in wine, or equal parts of gith, Ethiopian cumin, and the seeds of the chaste-tree in wine.

For severe stings of scorpions and phalangia. Of the lees of wine, dr. xvi; of pellitory, dr. iv; of the seed of wild rue, dr. iij; of castor, of the seeds of rocket, of each, dr. ij; let them be mixed with the blood of the sea-tortoise. The dose is four oboli with wine, or three cyathi of unmixed vinegar.—Another: Of pellitory, of birthwort, of each, oz. iv; of pepper, dr. ij; of the juice of the laserwort, dr. j. The dose is the size of an Egyptian bean.

Commentary. Nicander describes several species of the scorpion. The white, he says, is innoxious. The red occasions a fiery heat with restlessness and great thirst. The black brings on inquietude, delirium, and laughter. The green occasions chilliness with horror. The symptoms superinduced by the other species are also detailed. (See Theriac. 775.) Ælius Promotus gives a very circumstantial description of the effects produced by the sting of the different species of scorpions, but it would appear to be mostly taken from Galen and other Greek authorities. On the nature of the scorpion, see further, Pliny (H. N. xi, 25); and Ælian (vi, 20.)

On the medical treatment, see in particular Dioscorides (vi, 44); Aëtius (xiii, 19); Nonnus (269); Actuarius (Meth. Med. vi, 10); Celsus (v, 27); Rhases (ad Mansor. viii, 3); Haly Abbas (Theor. viii, 22, and Pract. iv, 33); Alsaharavius (Pract. xxx, 2, 20); Avicenna (iv, vi, 5.)

Galen gives a variety of prescriptions for the composition of antidotes for the cure of persons stung by scorpions. The following one may be taken as a specimen of them: Of birthwort, dr. iv; of pepper, dr. ij; of opium, dr. j; of pellitory, dr. iv; form into trochisks of the size of an Egyptian bean, and give to swallow along with two cyathi of undiluted wine. (De Antidot. ii.) Rhases gives another receipt of Galen’s for the sting of the scorpion, viz. equal parts of opium and of the seed of henbane given with honey. (Contin. xx, 24.)

On the use of venesection for the cure of the sting of the scorpion, Celsus says, “Cognovi tamen medicos qui ab scorpione ictis nihil aliud quam ex brachis sanguinem miserunt.” Rhases has pointed out the proper time and circumstances which require venesection: “When you have administered the theriac, and the pain has subsided, if fever supervene, bleed the patient on the following day in the morning, and give him barley-water and diluent food.” The symptoms as detailed by Haly Abbas are pain, swelling, hardness, and inflammation, which occasionally superinduce asphyxy and epilepsy. He directs a ligature to be put immediately around the member, and a bruised scorpion to be applied to the wound. He also mentions cataplasms with olive oil, and recommends the internal use of wine either alone or with garlic. The treatment as given by Alsaharavius is very similar. Dioscorides, Aëtius, Haly Abbas, Alsaharavius, Actuarius, and Nonnus, omit to mention venesection.

The veterinary surgeons recommend bleeding, scarifications, and burning with red-hot irons. See Vegetius (Mulom. iii, 77, and Geopon. xvi, 20.)

Sprengel remarks that Nicander’s division of scorpions is adopted by modern naturalists. (Hist. de la Méd.) Conrad Gesner gives a very elaborate dissertation on them. The scorpio Europæus, L., is not venomous. The African, however, is a very dangerous reptile. The inhabitants of Morocco, at the present day, treat its bite with the ligature, the cautery, and by applying the body of a dead scorpion to the wound. See Jackson’s Morocco (108). The Arabian authorities describe a highly venomous species of scorpion, which they call scorpius rastellans, carrareti, and algreta. See in particular Rhases, Haly Abbas, and Alsaharavius.

SECT. IX.—ON THE LAND AND SEA SCOLOPENDRA.

When one is bitten by a scolopendra the general symptoms are lividity of the parts around the bite, and swelling; sometimes it is of a feculent appearance, and sometimes, though rarely, red; and a painful and ill-conditioned ulcer takes place, beginning with the part that is bitten; and in addition to these, there is a sensation of pruritus over the whole body. Those bitten by the sea scolopendra in particular have a watery and transparent swelling, whereas that occasioned by the land scolopendra is red. It is proper therefore to apply to the wound pounded salts, or levigated rue, or ashes mixed with vinegar, or squills. Bathe the part with vinegar and brine; but Archigenes directs it to be done with much hot oil, and thus to apply the things formerly mentioned; and to administer potions containing birthwort with wine, or wild thyme, or calamint, or wild rue, or trefoil, or the juice of the root of asphodel to the amount of half a hemina with wine.

Commentary. Nicander says, that the scolopendra has two heads, and walks in both directions upon its many feet. Avicenna admits that he was wholly unacquainted with it. See in particular Ælian (H. A. iv, 22; and vii, 35.) Our author and Actuarius copy almost every word from Dioscorides. See also Aëtius (xiii, 15); Nonnus (272); Alsaharavius (Pract. xxx, 2, 23); Avicenna (iv, vi, 3.) Avicenna calls them, saculufudurni; and Alsaharavius, alhatrabay. Alsaharavius approves of wine with birthwort, rue, mint, &c., internally; and of salt, with honey, vinegar, &c., externally. The Pseudo-Dioscorides recommends salt with vernix, pitch, and honey. (Euporist. ii, 121.) We need have no hesitation in deciding with Sprengel and the other authorities on this subject, that the land scolopendra is the scolopendra morsitans, and the sea, the aphrodite oculeata, L.

SECT. X.—ON THE STELLIO OR SPOTTED LIZARD.

Those bitten by the spotted lizard experience intense pain and lividity of the part, but are relieved by the immediate application of cataplasms consisting of onions and garlic to the wound; and some by eating these things and drinking undiluted wine have been cured.

Commentary. That the galeotes and ascalabotes are but different names for the same animal is evident from Aristophanes (Nubes, 170, et seq.); and from the Scholiast’s note on Nicander (Ther. 484.) Pliny says of the stellio: “Hunc Græci coloten vocant et ascalaboten.” (H. N. xxix, 28.) On the stellio, see further Bochart (Hieroz. ii, 510); Harris (Nat. Hist. of the Bible, in the word spider); and Dr. Martyn on Virgil (Georg. iv, 244.) All agree that it was a kind of lizard. In short it is the lacerta stellio, L. A learned modern authority says it is venomous in Greece, but innocuous in Sicily. He describes it as resembling the lizard in shape, and the chamæleon in nature. (Agricola de Anim. Subterran.)

Dioscorides does not treat of the stellio. Aëtius recommends very nearly the same treatment as our author. (xiii, 12.) Avicenna and Rhases direct us to get the wound sucked, to put the patient into a warm bath and administer the theriac. The harbæ of Avicenna is probably only a species of the stellio.

Alsahaya and alvesghe of Alsaharavius seem to have been two species of stellio. (Pract. xxx, 2, 27.) He approves of the same treatment as that recommended by Avicenna and Rhases.

SECT. XI.—ON THE MUS ARANEUS OR SHREW-MOUSE.

When persons are bitten by the shrew-mouse, throbbing pains supervene, erythema of every part pierced by a tooth, blisters along the skin filled with an ichorous fluid, and all the surrounding parts are livid; and if the skin be stripped off from the blister, the ulcer appears white, owing to the skin being torn into nervous membranes. In addition to these symptoms, the mortified parts drop off, the disease extending like a spreading ulcer; and besides tormina supervene, with dysuria and the discharge of a cold fluid. They are relieved by the application of galbanum in the form of an oblong pledget, by itself, or triturated with vinegar, or of barley-flour mixed up with oxymel. And the shrew-mouse itself which inflicted the bite may be torn in pieces and applied, and pellitory may be applied, or the boiled rind of the sweet pomegranate, or wild mallows, or pounded garlic, or mustard triturated with vinegar; and the parts may be bathed with warm brine, and then a cataplasm of burnt barley with vinegar may be applied. They may take propomata of southernwood boiled in wine, or sisymbrium, or wild thyme, or rocket, or galbanum, or sage, or the tender balls of cypress with oxymel, or pellitory with wine, or the root of chameleon, or the rennet of a kid or of a lamb, or gentian root, or vervain. These things may also be administered in the form of a cataplasm. But some give in a potion the shrew-mouse itself that inflicted the bite, having triturated it with wine. This one also is effectual: Of myrrh, dr. vj; of the bark of birthwort, dr. iv. To the bites of the shrew-mouse and of the scolopendra apply salts with liquid pitch, or cedar-rosin with honey, or garlic with the leaves of the fig-tree and cumin, or the leaves of calamint, or barley with vinegar.

Commentary. Nicander says that the bite of the blind Mus araneus is mortal. Our author’s plan of treatment is taken from Dioscorides. Oribasius recommends garlic and cumin, mixed with oil. (De Morb. Curat. iii, 70.) Aëtius says that the Mus araneus is an animal resembling the weasel. His plan of treatment is similar to our author’s. (xiii, 14.)

Isodorus says of it: “Mus araneus, cujus morsu aranea moritur, est in Sardiniâ animal perexiguum, araneæ formâ, quæ solifuga dicitur, eo quod diem fugiat.” (Orig. xii, 3.)

Vegetius, the veterinary surgeon, recommends garlic pounded with nitre, or with salt and cumin. (Mulom. iii, 82.) See also Columella (vi, 17); and Ælian (H. A. ii, 37.)

Most of the Arabians treat of this case in the same terms as the Greeks.

Without doubt it is the sorix araneus, L. The accounts which the ancients give of its venomous qualities are said by Buffon and Sprengel to be exaggerated. Probably Agricola states the matter correctly when he says, that the mus araneus is venomous in warm climates, but innocent in cold. In size, he says, it is nearly equal to a small weasel. (De Anim. Subter.)

SECT. XII.—ON VIPERS AND ECHIDNÆ.

When persons have been bitten by the viper or echidna, or some such venomous animal, pain supervenes, at first of the part which has been bitten, but afterwards of the whole body. In the bite there appear two perforations at a little distance from one another, from which there is a discharge of blood and ichorous fluid, and afterwards of an oily one, but in all cases of a poisonous fluid, which they affirm to be the poison of the reptiles. Swelling comes on around the wound, which is reddish and livid; there is paleness of the whole body, vertigo, and resolution of the stomach, deliquium animi, and in some cases bilious vomitings and dysuria. Around the bite blisters arise, as from burning with fire, the disease spreads by extending to the surrounding parts, and the gums discharge blood. Trembling, heavy sleep, and a cold perspiration succeed these symptoms. Those bitten by the echidna appear to escape with less danger than those by the viper; and of these they run the least risk who have previously taken food. In treating them the most effectual remedy is eating garlic and drinking wine, so that if one can endure this course he will not stand in need of any other remedy. And let them eat also leeks, onions, and acrid pickle. Some likewise give frogs prepared with sauce to eat. The following things are effectual, each of which may be taken with wine: the dried blood of the sea tortoise with wild cumin, the rennet of a hare or a hind to the amount of three oboli, a drachm of the dried testicle of a stag, a whole alkanet with the slender leaves, which also some apply as an amulet. In like manner the juice of leeks, to the amount of half a hemina, in honied water, the juice of baum leaves, wild rue, the brains of domestic fowls, the root of panacea boiled in wine, one drachm of agaric, juniper berries, the root of asphodel, pounded pistachia, the seed of the chaste tree, two drachms of dried weasel, the root and juice of vipers’ bugloss, river and sea crabs alone or with stavesacre, salts and poley, the root of birthwort with equal parts of myrrh, gentian, and bay-berries mixed with honey. The following is an admirable remedy of Oribasius for persons bitten by vipers: Of anise, an acetabulum; of pepper, dr. iv; of the bark of birthwort, of opium, of castor, and of myrrh, of each, dr. j; triturate with must, and form to the size of a Grecian bean, and give according to the patient’s strength in three cyathi of diluted wine.—Another, from the works of Lycus, a medicine for the bites of vipers: Of myrrh, of castor, of pepper, of purslain, of each, dr. j; of the seed of dill, an acetabulum; triturate in must, and give.—Another, from the works of Archigenes: Pound carefully twenty crabs with a sufficient quantity of wheaten flour in a mortar, and having mixed some calamint and salt with it, form trochisks of it, and dry. Use in a cataplasm with milk, and give one in a draught with honied water. But, says he, if you have not river-crabs, use sea-crabs. Goat’s dung applied externally to the wound with wine is a powerful remedy; or bay-leaves boiled with oil, or bay-berries, or calamint, heath, rue, parsley, southernwood, galbanum on a pledget, green marjoram pounded; also young fowls torn in pieces, and applied warm and frequently changed, the flour of tares mixed with wine, the pounded bark of radish, boiled squills, raw barley-flour in oxymel, the leaves of the wild cucumber with fine polenta, the lees of wine in like manner with fine polenta, rue with salts and honey, bran boiled in vinegar, ashes with vinegar, cedar-pitch with salts, liquid pitch with salts. Bathe also with the decoction of trefoil, or of pennyroyal, or with vinegar and brine. When the blisters become bloody let out their contents without taking off the skin, then bathe with much water, and apply a cataplasm of boiled lentils with honey till the cure is completed. The antidote of vipers is particularly efficacious, both when taken in a draught and applied externally.

Commentary. Most of the ancient authorities appear to have considered the echidna the female viper; but, as will be seen below, there is reason to suppose that it was a different species altogether. It is the colubra of Celsus. (v, 27, 3.)

Our author’s description of the symptoms is closely copied from Nicander, who also recommends similar treatment. Dioscorides in like manner directs us to give wine, and various articles of an acrid and calefacient nature, such as garlic, onions, pepper, squills, &c. Archigenes (ap. Aëtium, xiii, 21) affirms that eating garlic and drinking undiluted wine, constitute the most effectual part of the treatment. Of course these things were given upon general principles with the view of supporting the strength and vital heat. Hence it may be understood why the ancients reposed so much confidence in the theriac of Andromachus, most of the ingredients of which were stimulant, acrid, and calefacient substances. The body of the viper, which entered into this famous composition, is said by a modern authority on the Materia Medica, Moses Charras, to contain a certain volatile oil. (See Book VII, sec. ii, of this work.)

Avicenna delivers his plan of treatment at great length, enumerating many Arabic substances, the nature of which cannot now be easily determined. His general principles, however, seem to have been much the same as those of our author. He recommends in the first place the ligature, and cupping with scarifications. Wine and the theriac are to be given unless inflammatory symptoms come on, in which case the patient is to be bled. (iv, 6.) In another place he praises the juice of the citron as a remedy against the sting of the viper. Haly Abbas recommends immediate amputation of the part when this is practicable, and otherwise directs us to apply a ligature around it, to make scarifications, and use stimulant applications, such as onions, leeks, &c. Like most of the other authorities, he recommends the theriac, and wine, with other stimulants, such as pepper, birthwort, bay-berries, &c. In certain cases he also approves of bleeding. (Pract. iv, 32.) Alsaharavius recommends cupping, the ligature, and in short nearly the same plan of treatment as Haly. (Pract. xxx, 2, 18.)

Garlic was used in common cases as a substitute for the theriac, both internally and in cataplasms. (See, in particular, Geopon. xii, 30.)

On the viper, see Ælian (H. A. x, 9); Phile (70); Galen (Ther. ad Pison.) The ancient stories of the fatal copulation of the male viper with the female, and of the loves of the muræna and viper, are probably fabulous. (See De Pauw, apud Phile.) The latter story is told by Aristotle (H. A. v, 10); Ælian (i, 50); Oppian (Hal. i, 554); Pliny (ix, 23); Athenæus (vii); Achilles Tatius (i.) One of Athenæus’s authorities, however, questions the truth of it. (Deipn. l. c.)

According to Sprengel, the Asiatic ἐχίδνα is the coluber Ægyptius; the ἔχις, probably the C. ammodytes; and the European ἐχίδνα, the C. berus. (Comment. in Dioscor.)

It is clear, however, from Nicander’s description of the viper, that the term ἔχις was applied to a considerable variety of venomous snakes. It must not then be supposed to apply in all cases to the coluber ammodytes. It is also certain, as will be seen under their proper heads, that other serpents, to which specific names were given, such as the cerastes, the hæmorrhus, and the asp, were merely varieties of the vipera.

The seps is not treated of by the Greek authorities on Toxicology, except Nicander, but is briefly noticed by the Arabian under the name of famusus. Avicenna states that the treatment of the viper applies to it. (iv. 6, 3, 48.) From the description of it given by Nicander, it would appear to have been a variety of the hæmorrhus. (See Theriac, 320, with the Commentary of Eutecnius.)

SECT. XIII.—ON THE AMPHISBÆNA AND SCYTALA.

The same symptoms follow their bites, and the same remedies are applicable to them; therefore it is unnecessary to treat of them particularly.

Commentary. Nicander says that the amphisbæna is a small serpent with two heads, and small eyes. The scytala, he says, is like the amphisbæna, but thicker and larger towards the tail. Avicenna doubts whether the amphisbæna moves both ways. He says it is a serpent of equal thickness at both extremities, which probably gave rise to the supposition that it had two heads. He calls it a snake of the fragile nature, which description evidently points to the blind-worm. (See further, Matthiolus, Comment. in Dioscor.) We suppose the altahban and alhuidia of Alsaharavius are the amphisbæna and scytala. (Pract. xxx, 2, 19.) He recommends general treatment, namely, the ligature, cupping, scarifications, with cold water to drink.

Sprengel inclines to think that the scytala was the anguis eryx. He makes the amphisbæna to be the anguis fragilis, L.; he questions, however, the accuracy of the ancient accounts respecting its venomous qualities. (Notæ in Dioscor.) But, indeed, Aëtius states distinctly that these serpents are not venomous, and that their sting merely occasions inflammation like that of wasps and bees. (l. c.) Nicander also merely describes these serpents, and says nothing about their being venomous.

SECT. XIV.—ON THE DRYINUS. THE INTRODUCTION FROM GALEN.

The dryinus, that lives at the roots of oaks, is so pernicious and destructive an animal, that if one tread on him he will excoriate one’s foot, and great swelling will seize upon the whole limbs; and, what is more wonderful, they say that if one attempt to dress the wound, one’s hands will be excoriated; and that if any person attempts in defence to kill the animal, he emits such a stench as overpowers all other smells. When one has been stung by the dryinus, tumefaction of the part takes place with redness, and blisters on the surrounding parts, along with a discharge of a watery ichor. These symptoms are followed by cardialgia and tormina. Birthwort given as a draught with wine is serviceable in these cases, and the herb trefoil, and the root of asphodel, taken in like manner, and the fruit of all kinds of oak triturated and taken in a draught. In like manner the roots of the ilex pounded and applied to the part are of use.

Commentary. Nicander says it is also called chelydros and hydros. He makes a distinction between the chelydros and the chersydros, but subsequent authorities confound them together. (See below.) He says it inhabits lakes and marshy grounds, feeding upon locusts and frogs. Its back is black, and its smell fetid. The symptoms occasioned by its sting are livid swelling, delirium, cutaneous pustules, dimness of vision, suppression of urine, coma, singultus, and vomiting of blood or bile.

Haly Abbas calls it adresa, and says that it emits a fetid smell, and brings on inflammatory redness with an aqueous discharge from the wound. (Theor. viii, 21.) Avicenna calls it kedusu duras. (iv, 6, 3.) Isidorus says, “Chelydros serpens qui et chersydros dicitur quia et in terris et in aquis moratur.” (Origines.)

Virgil translates Nicander’s account of this serpent into verses of inimitable spirit and elegance. It will be remarked by the curious reader that he mixes up together circumstances collected from Nicander’s separate descriptions of the chelydros and dryinus. (Georg, iii, 425.) Though critical emendation of the text of ancient authors be foreign to the design of this work, we cannot omit the present opportunity of stating that, from a comparison of the descriptions given by the Greek and Latin poets, we are inclined to think that the 434th line of Virgil should run thus:

This is founded upon the 417th line of Nicander’s Theriacs.

It seems to be the chersydros which Dante alludes to in the following verses:

For an account of the hydrus, see the sixteenth section.

According to Sprengel, the dryinus is the coluber lebetinus. (Notæ in Dios.)

Agricola finds fault with Lucan for distinguishing the chersydros from the hydrus or natrix. He remarks that the boa is a species of hydrus. (De Anim. sub.) They are now generally held to be different. See, however, our commentary on the sixteenth section.

SECT. XV.—ON THE HÆMORRHUS, PRESTER, OR DIPSAS.

Those bitten by the hæmorrhus experience violent pains, and both longitudinal and lateral contractions of the porous parts of the body, occasioned by the persistence of the pains. From the bite there is a copious discharge of blood, and if there happen to be a sore on any part of the body it bursts out and discharges blood. The alvine evacuations likewise are bloody, and the blood which is evacuated is thrombous. When they cough they bring up blood from the lungs, and they die at last vomiting blood irremediably. Those bitten by the dipsas experience intolerable heat and intense thirst which is insatiable and unceasing, so that they swallow copious draughts, and yet they feel as if they had never drunk; and the whole system is affected, as in dropsy, owing to constant ingestion of drink. Hence the animal has been called prester, causon, and dipsas. By most of the ancients those bitten by the hæmorrhus and dipsas were given over as incurable. But if we have no particular remedies for this reptile we ought to make trial of the general applications, and immediately have recourse to scarifications and burning, and, if the part permit, to amputation of the extremities. Then acrid cataplasms may be applied. All kinds of acrid food are also useful, especially that from pickles, drinking undiluted wine, and using baths. These things are to be applied perseveringly, and repeated at short intervals, before the complaints make their attacks; for after they make their appearance no advantage can be derived from medical aid. We find these topical remedies described for their bites, namely, for those of the dipsas, the powdered leaves of purslain with vinegar, polenta, and bramble leaves powdered with honey, plantain, hyssop, white garlic, leeks, rue, and nettle; and for those of the hæmorrhus the same things, and, in addition, boiled vine leaves triturated with honey. By the mouth the burnt head of the animal itself may be taken in a draught, or garlic with oil of iris. They may likewise eat dried grapes.

Commentary. According to Nicander, the hæmorrhus is about a foot in length, of a black or fiery colour, with two horns on its head, and eyes like those of locusts. The symptoms brought on by its bite, as described by Nicander, appear to have been very similar to those of the disease called purpura hæmorrhagica, namely, a discharge of blood from the gums, nose, ears, bladder, bowels, or any open sore. Ælian gives exactly the same account of it. (H. A. xv, 13.)

It appears from Dioscorides that the dipsas was also sometimes called prester and causon. (vi.) See also Ælian (H. A. vi, 51.) Lucian and Isidorus, however, make a distinction between the dipsas and prester. Lucian says that it resembles the viper de dipsadibus. In fact the dipsas seems to have belonged to the viper kind. (See Bochart, Hieroz. ii, 367.) Galen states that he was informed by the Marsi, who made a living in Rome by dealing in serpents, that the dipsades were not a peculiar species of serpents, but a variety of the viper found on the sea-shores of Africa. (De Simpl. x.) Isidorus thus defines them: “Hæmorrhois aspis nuncupatur, eo quod sanguinem sudet qui ab eo morsus fuerit: ita ut dissolutis venis, quicquid vitæ est per sanguinem evocat.” “Dipsas genus est aspidis quæ Latine situla quia quem memorderit siti perit.” (Orig. xii, 4.) The effects produced upon the system by the sting of the dipsas seem to have been of a highly inflammatory nature. According to Nicander, it kindles a flame in the heart, the lips become parched, and the person is seized with an unquenchable thirst. These symptoms are strongly portrayed by Lucan:

The Arabians give a similar description of its effects. Haly Abbas says, that it occasions great heat and burning. Dioscorides treats the wounds of the dipsas and hæmorrhus upon general principles, namely, by the external application of cauteries and cataplasms; and the internal administration of wine and acrid food. Actuarius, in like manner, recommends undiluted wine and acrid food, and also directs us to amputate the part, or apply acrid cataplasms according to the degree of danger. Most of the ancient authorities concur in recommending the theriac; for an account of the modus operandi of which in this case, see Alexander Aphrodisiensis (Prob. i, 152.)

We may mention that, after considering the descriptions given by Nicander, his commentator Eutecnius, Galen, Actuarius, and Avicenna, we are disposed to think that the text of our author at the beginning of this section must be corrupt; but we have not ventured to deviate from it, as we could not hit upon a conjectural emendation to satisfy us. None of the others mention contractions of the interstices or porous parts of the body, and all state that there is a discharge of blood from the pores of the skin. Now it is not probable that our author should have omitted a symptom so striking as this cutaneous hemorrhage, and substituted one which the others take no notice of.

Sprengel makes the dipsas to be the coluber prester, and the hæmorrhus the C. cerastes. That they were both vipers is quite obvious from the ancient descriptions of them, and more especially from the account of them given by Galen. (l. c.)

SECT. XVI.—ON THE HYDRUS, OR WATER SERPENT.

When a person has been bitten by a water serpent, the wound becomes broad, large, and pale, and a black, copious, and fetid discharge, as from a spreading ulcer, takes place, and the cure of the mischief is accomplished only after a length of time, and with difficulty. Wherefore powdered marjoram mixed with water is to be applied to their bites, or oak ashes mixed with oil, or barley-flour with melted honey is given to drink, and birthwort to the amount of two drachms in diluted wine, or two cyathi of oxycrate; and afterwards the juice of horehound, or its decoction with wine, or wild cresses, or the fruit of asphodel, or the flour or the seed of hog’s fennel, with wine. A fresh honeycomb may also be eaten with vinegar.

Commentary. This section is taken almost word for word from Dioscorides. The chersydros, says Nicander, is like the asp, and its bite is followed by malignant symptoms. The skin about the wound becomes parched and putrid, along with heat and pains all over the body. Isidorus says of it: “Hydros aquatilis serpens a quo icti obturgescunt.” (Orig. xii, 4.) See also Pliny. (H. N. xxix, 22.) Haly Abbas says, it occasions lividity of the part, from which a black fetid discharge takes place. (Theor. viii, 21.)

Bochart makes this to have been the serpent which so annoyed the children of Israel in the wilderness. (Hier. ii, 421.)

According to Sprengel, it is the coluber natrix. (Notæ in Dioscor.) Gesner and Dr. Milligan make it to have been the coluber lutrix vel chersea, L. It is now generally held not to be venomous. We have alluded in our commentary on the fourteenth section to the confusion of the hydrus with the dryinus. Schneider has a learned annotation on this subject in his ‘Curæ posteriores’ to Nicander’s Theriacs, (l. 432.)

SECT. XVII.—ON THE CENCHRINUS.

When a person is bitten by the cenchrinus, the bite is like that of the echidna, mortification supervenes, and the flesh melts away, having been previously swelled as in dropsy, and he becomes lethargic and comatose. Erasistratus says that the liver, bladder, and colon are affected; for upon dissection these parts were found corrupted. Wherefore they are remedied by a cataplasm composed of the fruit of lettuce with linseed, and by pounded savory, and by wild rue, and by wild thyme triturated with asphodel; and two drachms of the root of centaury should be immediately given in a draught with three cyathi of nine, or the root of birthwort in like manner, and so also cresses and gentian.

Commentary. According to Nicander, the cenchrinus, called also the lion, has a body of varied size, and marked with punctated squamæ.

Dioscorides and Actuarius give exactly the same account of this serpent as our author. Haly Abbas in like manner describes it as occasioning mortification and putridity of the part. (Theor. viii, 21.) Isidorus says of it, “Cenchris serpens in flexuosis qui semper iter rectum efficit. De quo Lucanus: Et semper recto lapsurus limite cenchris.”

Sprengel conjectures that it is a variety of the coluber berus, or viper, which is highly probable. According to Belon, it is three palms long, of the thickness of the little finger; of a cinereous colour, with black spots. Aëtius makes it to be the same as the acontias, which there can be no doubt was the same as the jaculus of Lucan. Yet Lucan treats of the jaculus and cenchris separately. (Phars. ix.)

SECT. XVIII.—ON THE CERASTES AND ASP.

According to Galen, there are three kinds of asps: that called the land asp, the chelidonian, and the third the ptyas, which is the most pernicious of all; for, stretching its neck, and measuring a convenient distance, with great sagacity, it disgorges the poison into the body. This is said to be the kind of asp which Queen Cleopatra, when Augustus, having vanquished Antony, wished to seize on her, took and applied to her left breast, and being bitten by it she died very quickly. When a person is bitten by the cerastes the part becomes tumefied, with hardness and blisters, and from the bite there flows an ichor which is sometimes black and sometimes pale, and like leeks; the whole system becomes of a dark pale colour, with erection of the privy member, and mental alienation; then dimness of sight comes on, and they die at last convulsed, as in tetanus. When a person is bitten by an asp, the bite resembles the prick of a needle, being very small in appearance, and without tumefaction, and it discharges blood not copiously but in small quantity, and of a black colour. Straightway dimness of the eyes seizes them, and various pains all over the body, which are altogether slight, and not without enjoyment, supervene; wherefore Nicander has properly said, “and without suffering dies the man.” The colour is changed and becomes as green as grass, there is a gnawing pain at the orifice of the stomach, the forehead is constantly drawn upwards, the eyelids are moved insensibly as in sleep, and with these symptoms death cuts off the man before the third part of a day has passed over. In both these cases speedy amputation of the extremities averts the evil. Wherefore the bitten part is to be amputated without delay, if possible, or the flesh is to be cut off immediately down to the bone, in order that the poison may not pass through the parts which are bitten and the adjacent ones. Then what remains is to be seared by cauteries. For the poison of these, like that of the basilisk and bull’s blood, quickly coagulates the blood and spirits in the arteries.

Commentary. According to Nicander, the most pestiferous asp is about an ell in length, its colour squalid, its eyes of a drowsy appearance, and when it bites a person it leaves a very small wound; neither swelling nor inflammation is perceived, “and the man without pain sinks into a profound sleep.” This is the serpent which Cleopatra despatched herself with. See some curious remarks upon this event, and the nature of the serpent in Galen (Ther. ad Pison.), from which our author borrows his account of it.

Nicander says of the cerastes that it resembles the male viper, only that the latter has no horns, whereas the former has either two or four. Isidorus says of them, “Aspis vocata quod morsu venena immittat et aspergat: ἱὸς enim Græci venenum dicunt, et inde aspis quod morsu venenato interimat” (Orig. xii, iv); and of the cerastes, “Cerastes serpens dictus eo quod in capite cornua habeat similia arietum: sunt autem quadrigemina cornicula, quorum ostentatione, veluti escâ illiciens sollicitata animalia perimit.” (Ibid.) Harris says, “The shephephon (Gen. xlix. 17) is probably the cerastes, a serpent of the viper kind.” (Nat. Hist. of the Bible.) Bochart, however, has proved that the shephephon signifies both the cerastes and the hæmorrhus, which are very much alike, being both vipers. (Hier. ii, 416.) Sprengel, in fact, makes the hæmorrhus to be the same as the cerastes.

Our author’s treatment is principally taken from Dioscorides. Aëtius, however, gives the fullest account of them. He says the sting of the most fatal species of asp proves fatal in three hours; and that those wounded by the cerastes generally live nine days. He represents the asp as occasioning great coldness, torpor, and at last convulsions. Besides the local remedies applicable in all such cases, he recommends in an especial manner vinegar, which is to be administered in great quantities. Celsus thus explains the way in which vinegar proves efficacious for counteracting the effect of a frigorific poison: “Credo quoniam id (acetum) quamvis refrigerandi vim habet, tamen habet etiam dissipandi. Quo fit ut terra respersa eo spumat. Eadem ergo vi verisimile est spissescentem quoque intus humorem hominis ab eo discuti, et sic dari sanitatem.”

The author of the work ‘Euporistôn,’ usually published with those of Dioscorides, recommends, in the case of a person stung by the asp, constant shaking, beating, and movement of the whole body, with the affusion of hot salt water. (Euporist. ii, 120.)

Pliny says the poison of an asp proves immediately fatal when introduced into a fresh wound, more slowly when the sore is old, and that it is perfectly innoxious when swallowed by the mouth. (N. H. xxix, 18.)

The account which Avicenna gives of these serpents is mostly taken from Aëtius and our author.

Agricola describes the asp to be four feet long, and of the thickness of a spear. The cerastes, he says, in other respects resembles a viper, except that it has two or four substances on its head like horns.

Madden, a late traveller in the East, gives a different account of the horned serpent (coluber cerastes); he says that of two which he purchased from the Psylli one was a foot long, and the other a foot and a half. A lancet smeared with the venom of one of them killed a dog in three hours. The French naturalists who attended the expedition to Egypt found a viper, called hage by the inhabitants, which they held to be identical with the asp of the ancients. We need have no hesitation then in deciding that the coluber Ægyptiacus is the celebrated asp of antiquity. That the cerastes was a variety of the asp seems highly probable from the description which Nicander gives of both. (Theriac 177 and 259.) See also Wilkinson’s ‘Thebes,’ p. 378. In fine, the asp and cerastes were merely varieties of the common viper of Egypt.

SECT. XIX.—ON THE BASILISK.

This reptile seldom comes under the sight of men; but Erasistratus says, when the basilisk bites one the wound becomes of a faint golden colour, and he also says that three drachms of castor taken in a draught proves a remedy in such cases, and in like manner the juice of poppy; but we have had no trial of these things.

Commentary. The basilisk, according to Nicander, has a sharp body about three palms in length, of a bright yellow colour, and is called the king of reptiles, because all the others flee from his hiss. Pliny, Solinus, and most of the ancient authorities seem to copy Nicander’s description of the basilisk. The symptoms produced by his sting are said to be inflammation of the whole body, lividity and putrefaction of the flesh. (Theriac. l. c.) See also Galen (Ther. ad Pison.)

Avicenna states that the basilisk stupefies birds and other animals which approach him. He relates the case of a soldier who transfixed a basilisk with his spear, and the poison proved fatal both to him and his horse, whose lip was accidentally wounded with the spear. Lucan relates the case of a soldier in the army of Cato, who having wounded a basilisk with a spear, and having felt his hand affected with the poison, saved his life by immediately cutting it off with his sword. (Phars. ix, 830.) Similar histories are given by Pliny, Dioscorides, Actuarius, and Isidorus. Solinus affirms that it proves fatal to all beasts, birds, and vegetables.

For an explanation of the passages of scripture wherein mention is made of the basilisk, see Bochart (Hier. ii, 339.)

Sprengel says: “Linnæus omnem fabulam (de Basilisco) ad Lacertæ genus, capite cristato, Iguanæ proximum, reduxit.” (Comment. in Dioscor.) M. l’Abbé Bonneterre also affirms that the basilisk is not poisonous. (Encyc. Méthod.) It may be doubted, however, if we be now acquainted with the basilisk of the ancients. It would appear to us almost certain that the ancient basilisk must have been either the cobra di capello, or one of the serpents described by an intelligent traveller under the names of buskah and el effah as being still found in Morocco. (Jackson’s Account of Morocco, 109.) The former of these, indeed, judging of it from the drawing which he gives must be a variety of the cobra or coluber naja, L. We may add that a very intelligent modern authority on the toxicology of the ancients, Ardoyn, gives such a description of the basilisk as applies very well to the cobra. The crown (corona) on the head can refer to no other serpent than the hooded snake. (De venenis, vi.) It is now well ascertained that the cobra is indigenous in Africa.

SECT. XX.—ON THE SEA PASTINACA AND MURÆNA.

In the case of sea animals, such as the fire-flaire and murene, the diagnosis is obvious, for these fishes are well known. Those who are bitten by them are remedied by four drops of the juice of figs, or a little more, with three or four small branches of wild thyme in a draught, and those things used for echidna.

Commentary. Nicander says that the sting of the pastinaca occasions putridity in the flesh of a man who is wounded by it, and that it proves fatal to a tree in like manner. The same thing is asserted by Aëtius, Oppian, Phile, and Ælian. Our author and Actuarius copy from Dioscorides.

Avicenna recommends an embrocation of hot vinegar, and ointments composed of bay-leaves, oil of pellitory, and so forth; and in like manner recommends various calefacient medicines internally.

The murene of the ancients was that elegant species of eel to which the scientific name of muræna helena is now applied. It is rarely found on the British coasts but is common in the Mediterranean. The pastinaca marina of the ancients, was the raia pastinaca, L., i. q., trygon pastinaca, Cuvier, namely, the sting-ray or fire-flaire. Sprengel affirms that its sting is not venomous, as the ancients represent; but there can be no doubt that it is capable of producing inflammation. See Yarrel (British Fishes, ii, 588.) We may mention in this place that the account of the copulation between the viper and the murene which is given by Nicander, Oppian and other ancient authors, is held to be fabulous by Andreas, the physician, as quoted by the scholiast on Nicander. (Ad Theriac, 822.)

SECT. XXI.—ON THE SEA-DRAGON.

Rub the wound inflicted by the sea-dragon with lead, or apply a cataplasm of pounded wild thyme, or of boiled lentil, or of sulphur with vinegar, or the dragon itself may be torn in pieces and applied. Wash the part with human urine, and give potions of wormwood with diluted wine, or of sage, or of fig branches steeped in sweet wine, or of the brains of the fish itself.

Commentary. A great variety of remedies for the wound of the sea-dragon are described by Nicander. For an account of the draco, see Dioscorides (vi, 45); Aristotle (H. A. viii, 13); Ælian (H. A. xiv, 12); Nonnus (276); Pliny (H. N. xxix, 20); Aëtius (xiii, 39); Phile (80); Avicenna (iv, 6, 3.)

We need have no hesitation in referring the sea-dragon of the ancients to the trachinus draco, L., Angl., the great weever or sting-ball. This is agreed upon by all the best commentators, as Rondelet, Artedi, Coray, and Sprengel. Fishermen are still very apprehensive of its sting. See Yarrel (Brit. Fishes, i, 25.)

SECT. XXII.—ON THE SEA-SCORPION.

The wound of the sea-scorpion is cured by a surmullet torn in pieces and applied, by sulphur vivum rubbed with vinegar, or by three bay-berries pounded and drunk.

Commentary. See Dioscor. (vi, 45); Nonnus (277); Aëtius (xiii, 40); Athenæus (353, ed. Casaubon.); Avicenna (iv, 6, 3, 23.)

Bochart says of the sea scorpion: “Is cum terrestri nihil habet commune præter venenatos aculeos, non in caudâ sed in capite et toto corpore sparsos.” (Hierob. ii, 635.)

According to Sprengel, it is either the scorpæna scrofa or the cottus scorpius Bloch. (Comment. in Dios.) It is a fish still very much dreaded on account of its sharp spines. See Yarrel (Br. Fishes, i, 76.)

SECT. XXIII.—THE PREPARATION OF THE BLOOD OF THE SEA-TORTOISE.

The blood of the sea-tortoise is to be prepared for keeping in this way. Having stretched the tortoise with its belly upwards on a wooden or earthen vessel, cut off its head quickly, and when its blood is coagulated, divide it into many parts with a reed, put a sieve upon the vessel in place of a lid and lay it up in the sun. When dried take it and use for bites of vipers, as aforesaid; two drachms with one cyathus of vinegar, on the second day four drachms with two cyathi of vinegar, and on the third eight drachms with three cyathi of vinegar.

Commentary. This section is copied from Aëtius (xiii, 24.) In our translation we have followed the text of Aëtius, that of our author being manifestly corrupt.

SECT. XXIV.—ON PERSONS BITTEN BY CROCODILES.

For the bites of the crocodile apply levigated natron until the ulcer be cleansed, then fill it with honey, butter, stag’s marrow, or the fat of geese. But Galen says, that he has known persons bitten by crocodiles manifestly relieved by the application of the fat of the crocodiles themselves to the wounds.

Commentary. This case is more fully treated of by Aëtius (xiii, 6.) His remedies are mostly of an acrid stimulant nature such as misy, pickle, salts, myrrh, verdigris, &c. The application recommended by our author upon the authority of Galen is ascribed by Aëtius to Apollonius.

SECT. XXV.—ON PERSONS BITTEN BY A MAN.

It will not be foreign to my subject along with venomous animals also to treat of persons bitten by men, since the bites inflicted by men are much more malignant than other ulcers, more especially if the person who bit happens to be fasting, or had previously eaten some pulse, particularly dried lentil. Wherefore, the general remedies for poisonous animals may be applied externally to the bite with advantage at the commencement, with the exception of such as are very acrid and caustic; in particular having first rubbed the bite with oil, apply a cataplasm of the roots of hog’s fennel with honey, or apply the flour of beans with oxycrate, and vinegar and rose oil, sponging it frequently. And use the following plaster: Of squama æris, of galbanum, of verdigris, of each, oz. j; of wax, lb. j; of molybdæna, lb. ij; of oil, one sextarius. The molybdæna being first boiled in the oil receives the verdigris and squama æris, and when it thickens it receives the soluble substances. When the inflammation subsides treat it as a common ulcer.

Commentary. Similar treatment is recommended by Aëtius (xiii, 1); Apuleius (9, 2); Serenus (45); Pliny (H. N. xxviii, 4); Oribasius (de Morb. Curat. iii, 71); Avicenna (iv, 6, 4); and Haly Abbas (Pract. iv, 28.)

It may be proper to mention in this place that instances have not been wanting in modern times to confirm the accounts given by ancient authorities, of fatal effects being occasioned by the bite of a man. See Hildanus (Chirurg. i); Forestus (xxx, 12); Hoffman (Diss. de saliv. et op. morb. 5); Zacutus Lusitanus (Prax. adm. iii, 84, 89.)

SECT. XXVI.—ON POISONS.

Having given a compendious account of venomous animals, we shall next treat of deleterious substances, giving an exposition of the simple ones, and detailing the symptoms of them with their general and particular remedies. As to the compound ones we leave them to be treated of by any person who chooses; for some have described the compositions of certain deadly medicines which are more likely to prove injurious than beneficial to the reader. For neither are the exact symptoms which occurred in those who took them described, by which a suitable remedy might be found out; for the symptoms varying according to the nature of the prevailing ingredient, one might, from conjecture, vary the remedies accordingly. Wherefore here again we must begin with the prophylactics.

Commentary. We now enter upon the consideration of the second and most important division of toxicology; namely, alexipharmics, which treats of poisonous substances taken inwardly. All the writers on theriacs treat also of alexipharmics, and of these the most ancient, and one of the most interesting, is the Colophonian poet Nicander. Of the subsequent authors, Dioscorides and Aëtius among the Greeks, and Avicenna and Alsaharavius among the Arabians, are most particularly deserving of notice.

SECT. XXVII.—ON THE PRESERVATIVES FROM POISONS.

Of the doctrine of poisonous substances, the most difficult part is the prophylactic; because those who administer poisons in a concealed manner, prepare them so as to deceive the most skilful. Thus they take away the bitterness of deleterious substances by mixing them with sweet things, and the fetid smell by a mixture with aromatics. Sometimes in diseases, while appearing to administer such things as wormwood, southernwood, opoponax, and castor, for a beneficial purpose, they mix poisons with them; or they give them in the food, namely, in the harder and more complex articles, mixing the poisons with them. Wherefore a person who entertains suspicions, ought to avoid all prepared dishes and every intense quality, such as sweetness, saltness, and acidity; and in particular to take plenty of water, for when the appetite is satiated, the particular qualities are afterwards easily detected. There is likewise another efficacious mode of prophylaxis: for they who suspect anything of this kind should take such things as will blunt and take away the effect of the poisons, as dried grapes with walnuts, rue, a lump of salt, and citrons. Let them also take rape-seed to the amount of a drachm in wine, or the leaves of calamint, or Lemnian earth, and twenty leaves of rue, and they will not be hurt by any poison. And certain antidotes taken with wine every day to the amount of an Egyptian bean will protect completely, such as the one from skink, that from blood, and the Mithridate, which king Mithridates took every day as a preservative from deadly poison; and being captured by the Romans, he drank twice of a deadly poison, and not being able to despatch himself thereby, he killed himself with his sword. And since people are sometimes exposed to deleterious things accidentally in desert places without design, if they happen to take up their abode under certain trees, such as pines or firs, they ought to be on their guard against deadly animals, which fall from them and the roofs of houses, and keep the vessels in which their wine is contained, and in which they boil victuals, well covered up, as has been stated when treating of the preservatives from venomous animals.

Commentary. Nearly the whole contents of this section are taken from Dioscorides. (Præf.)

The account of the treatment given by Aëtius is somewhat fuller than our author’s, but not materially different.

Avicenna makes mention of the same medicines as Dioscorides, and says nothing of any other remedies.

Of the substances mentioned by our author, and the others as preservatives from poisons, some are demulcents, and may be supposed to act by obtunding the acrimony of poisons, such as figs, walnuts, and rape-seed; some are simple absorbents, such as Lemnian earth, which probably resembled red ochre, and was also emetic: some are stimulants, such as rue, calamint, and wine; and some are refrigerant acids, such as citrons, which may be supposed to act as analeptics and restoratives. Virgil mentions this property of the citron:

See in particular Simeon Seth (in voce Κιτρὰ); and Athen. (Deip. ii.) Dr. Paris states that when a narcotic poison has been ejected from the stomach, citrons or any fruit containing a vegetable acid will produce the best effects. (See Pharmacologia i, 254.)

SECT. XXVIII.—THE GENERAL TREATMENT OF THOSE WHO HAVE TAKEN ANY SORT OF DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCE.

If any persons have already taken some deadly poison with the intention of despatching themselves, such as often happens in life, or from the wicked design of others, if it be obvious to us what substance has been taken, we can straightway apply the suitable remedy, as will be described in the account of them. But if the medicine is unknown to us, we must have recourse immediately to such things as are generally applicable to those who have taken any poison whatever; for to wait until the consequent symptoms have come on, is to render the case hopeless, since owing to the remedies being too long of being applied such symptoms can hardly be removed: wherefore, without delay, we must give warm oil by itself or with water, and force them to vomit, or if oil is not at hand, butter with hot water may be given, or a decoction of mallows, or of linseed, or of spelt, or of fenugreek, or of nettle seed. For these things will not only evacuate by vomiting, but will loosen the belly and counteract the bad effects of the poisons, by blunting their acrimony; and more especially oil will do this, as you may ascertain clearly from the following consideration. For if you wish to produce ulceration of the skin by means of cantharides, quicklime, or some such acrid substance, and the body has been previously rubbed with oil, no ulcers will take place, and neither also can you astringe the body if previously rubbed with oil. Besides, vomiting is not only useful by evacuating the offending matter, but by showing the poison which had been taken from its smell, particles, or colour. For by its smell and bitterness poppy-juice is known; by their colour, ceruse and gypsum; by their coagula, milk and fresh blood; by their heavy smell and quality, the sea-hare and toad: so that by these means we are enabled to have recourse to the remedies which are suitable to each. With the oil may be mixed the decoction of mallows, or the grease of geese, or broth prepared from fat flesh or fowls, or the cinders of wood. Natron also triturated with hydromel, much old wine, and those things which are prepared from fat or butter are efficacious. Having evacuated the contents of the stomach by emetics, we must bring away whatever had passed into the intestines by a stimulant clyster. After these things, we are to give milk to drink, for whatever is noxious and deleterious will be readily changed by it. We must also give those medicines which are generally applicable to all such cases, among which are the Lemnian vermilion, southernwood, agaric, hedge-mustard, the root of eryngo, the seed of parsnip or of calamint, the Celtic nard, castor, the inner part of green fennel-giant, the flowers of nerium (called also rhododendron and rhododaphon), the juice of leeks, laserwort or the juice thereof, sagapene, opoponax, the juice and root of hog’s fennel, the long birthwort, the seed of wild rue, the leaves of that species of cestrum, called betony; of each of these a drachm may be taken in wine. The decoction of poley and liquid pitch in a linctus is also efficacious, and the aforesaid antidotes are excellent remedies, especially the theriac from vipers. But they have not the same power when taken after as before the poisonous substances, for a dose which would have been sufficient, if administered beforehand, to prevent any bad consequences, must be given in a fourfold or fivefold quantity, in order to prove effectual when administered afterwards, and that too not once, but twice a day. For such is the opinion of the celebrated Galen.

Commentary. Except the last two sentences the whole of this section is copied from Dioscorides. Celsus’ directions, so far as they go, are excellent: “Commodissimum est tamen, ubi primum sensit aliquis, protinus oleo multo epoto vomere: deinde, ubi præcordia exhausit, bibere antidotum; si id non est, vel merum vinum.” The directions given by Aëtius are to the same purpose as our author’s, but somewhat fuller. He is particularly to be commended for the precision with which he lays down the rules of treatment, when any organ happens to be affected in an especial manner. Thus, if the poison attack the bladder, he directs us to put the patient into a hip-bath of oil or water, in which fenugreek, linseed, mallows, or some such emollient herbs have been, boiled and to give him to drink the decoction of some vegetable diuretic, such as parsley, fennel, or spikenard. If the bladder be corroded he directs us to give the seed of cucumber in diluted sweet wine. In the same manner when the intestines are corroded the same seed is to be given, and all heating articles are to be abstained from. When the poison is determined to the skin, he recommends the hip-bath of oil or water, friction with warm oil, and the like, evidently with the intention of evacuating it from the pores of the skin. Food of easy digestion, soups with honey, tender fishes, and the like are to be given. When the head is particularly affected he directs us to evacuate the bowels with a clyster of linseed, marshmallows, and a decoction of the root of the wild cucumber, after which sternutatories and odoriferous things are to be applied to the nose. Like our author, he strongly commends Lemnian earth with wine as an excellent and speedy emetic. This remedy is also mentioned by Avicenna. Galen assures us that he found it an excellent emetic in various cases of poisoning. (Simpl. ix.) It consists principally of silica, alumina, and oxyde of iron.